Gender, wheat trait preferences, and innovation uptake: Lessons from Ethiopia and India

Abstract

During the post-Green Revolution era, numerous improved wheat varieties were released and disseminated to enhance tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses and increase productivity. Still, in the wheat-based farming systems of the Global South, gender-based and other social inequalities continue to undermine equitable access to improved varieties, especially for women, poor, and marginalized farmers. Here, we present a case for gender-sensitive technology development, dissemination, and evaluation as part of wheat varietal improvement programs. We take stock of the various challenges that persist in the uptake of modern wheat varieties by male and female smallholders. We focus on Ethiopia and India, two geographies with substantive wheat economies, widespread poverty, and gender inequalities. The socio-economic literature on wheat is relatively thin with limited and dated gender-sensitive evaluation studies on varietal technologies in these countries. Varietal technology evaluations could ideally cover gender differences in relation to wheat varietal trait preferences, technology adoption, and associated decision-making and labor-use changes related to new varieties and complementary technologies, as well as nutritional and economic benefits. The paper calls for a need to change the institutional arrangements in wheat research-and-development (R&D) programs to understand and pursue better paths for wheat improvement to proactively contribute toward gender equity and inclusivity.

Gender, rainfall endowment, and farmers’ heterogeneity in wheat trait preferences in Ethiopia

“…This outcome aligns with our finding that the majority of men and women respondents (about 81 % and 74 %, respectively) favored these two traits the most. Studies also show that the yield enhancement and risk reduction aspects of improved seed are the most important features in rural households’ seed demand ( Badstue et al, 2022 , Macours, 2019 , Marenya et al, 2021b ; 2022).…”

“…Ethiopia is the largest wheat producer in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), producing about 5.8 million tons of wheat annually on 2.1 million hectares (M ha) of land under rain-fed (1.7 M ha) and irrigated (0.4 M ha) systems ( Csa, 2021 , Hodson et al, 2020 , Tadesse et al, 2022 ) . Over five million smallholders earn their living directly from wheat production ( CSA, 2021 ); wheat is the second most important crop after maize in terms of production and contributes a substantial proportion to the national protein and calorie consumption ( Badstue et al, 2022 , Erenstein et al, 2022 ). Consumer demand for wheat is increasing due to growth in population, income, and urbanization.…”

“…Initiatives related to the development of seed systems of cereal crops primarily concentrate on the technical aspects of developing seed traits. However, they often overlook the social dynamics and demand-side factors within the seed system ( Badstue et al, 2022 , Barrett et al, 2022 , Voss et al, 2021 ). For instance, the Green Revolution period, typically from 1967 to 1978, successfully increased calorie supplies to the global population and also helped reduce food prices, increase anthropometric outcomes, decrease agricultural intensification in forest areas, and reduce infant mortality ( Barrett et al, 2022 , Evenson and Gollin, 2003 , Gollin et al, 2021 ).…”

Gender, social, household, and ecological factors influencing wheat trait preferences among the women and men farmers in India

“…About 74% of the state workforce is employed in agriculture and related sectors, which contributes about 20% to the state economy (Thakur, 2020). Another important consideration in Bihar is the widespread inequalities caused by age, gender, class, caste, and ethnicity (Badstue et al, 2022), which implies the agency of women and men farmers in selecting suitable crop varieties according to their livelihood requirements.…”

“…Wheat yield in Indian states varies according to the technology used and agroclimatic conditions (Soni et al, 2017), with a productivity gap of more than 40% in the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains compared to the west (Badstue et al, 2022). The growing popularity of high-yielding varieties and mechanization have increased the demand and wages for male labor but decreased the same for female labor due to limited scope for performing women's traditional tasks of transplanting and weeding in mechanized wheat production system (D' Agostino, 2017).…”