General Nature of the Genetic Code for Proteins

Crick, Francis; Barnett, Leslie; Brenner, Sydney; Watts‐Tobin, R. J.

doi:10.1038/1921227a0

Cited by 1,208 publications

(529 citation statements)

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“…Shortly after this, we were able to produce genetic evidence strongly suggesting that the code was a triplet code (Crick et al, 1961). By that time, the evidence from the changes in amino acid sequence found in mutants of human hemoglobin and of Tobacco Mosaic Virus, when added to Brenner's argument, made it highly likely that the code was nonoverlapping.…”

Section: Telephoned Marshallmentioning

confidence: 66%

The Genetic Code--Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

Crick¹

1966

Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology

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118

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Section: Telephoned Marshallmentioning

confidence: 66%

The Genetic Code--Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

Crick¹

1966

Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology

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118

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“…Given that there are only 20 amino acids, most can therefore be encoded by more than one synonymous codon (the exceptions being methionine and tryptophan) (Gustafsson et al 2004;Hershberg & Petrov 2008). This degeneracy in the genetic code (Crick et al 1961) may have evolved as a way to preserve a protein's structural information in case of mutation (Zull & Smith 1990). …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Synthetic gene design—The rationale for codon optimization and implications for molecular pharming in plants

Webster

Teh

K.‐C.

2016

Biotech & Bioengineering

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Degeneracy in the genetic code allows multiple codon sequences to encode the same protein. Codon usage bias in genes is the term given to the preferred use of particular synonymous codons. Synonymous codon substitutions had been regarded as "silent" as the primary structure of the protein was not affected; however, it is now accepted that synonymous substitutions can have a significant effect on heterologous protein expression. Codon optimization, the process of altering codons within the gene sequence to improve recombinant protein expression, has become widely practised.Multiple inter-linked factors affecting protein expression need to be taken into consideration when optimizing a gene sequence. Over the years, various computer programmes have been developed to aid in the gene sequence optimization process. However, as the rulebook for altering codon usage to affect protein expression is still not completely understood, it is difficult to predict which strategy, if any, will design the 'optimal' gene sequence.In this review, codon usage bias and factors affecting codon selection will be discussed and the evidence for codon optimization impact will be reviewed for recombinant protein expression using plants as a case study. These developments will be relevant to all recombinant expression systems, however, molecular pharming in plants is an area which has consistently encountered difficulties with low levels of recombinant protein expression, and should benefit from an evidence based rational approach to synthetic gene design. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

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“…A remarkable feature of the structure is that DNA can accommodate almost any sequence of base pairs -any combination of the bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T) -and, hence any digital message or information. During the following decade it was discovered that each gene encodes a complementary RNA transcript, called messenger RNA (mRNA) 2 , made up of A, C, G and uracil (U), instead of T. The four bases of the DNA and RNA alphabets are related to the 20 amino acids of the protein alphabet by a triplet code -each three letters (or 'codons') in a gene encodes one amino acid 3 . For example, AGT encodes the amino acid serine.…”

Section: "Any Living Cell Carries With It the Experiences Of A Billiomentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This led to the early supposition that the histones were also repressor proteins designed to shut off unwanted expression. The available evidence, although rudimentary, does indeed suggest that archaeal histones are not merely packaging factors, but function to regulate gene expression [2][3][4][5] . They…”

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confidence: 99%

The digital code of DNA

Hood

Galas

2003

Nature

234

123

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anti-cancer drugs. Potent cytokines and monoclonal antibodies directed against cell surface-associated structures are already prominent within a radically revised pharmaceutical armamentarium in areas including cancer, autoimmunity, allergy and transplantation. DNA research is therefore crucial to a new generation of immunologists, from those striving towards the development of novel vaccines to those seeking to understand and control autoimmune diseases, allergy and transplant tolerance.s s

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General Nature of the Genetic Code for Proteins

Cited by 1,208 publications

References 10 publications

The Genetic Code--Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

The Genetic Code--Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

Synthetic gene design—The rationale for codon optimization and implications for molecular pharming in plants

The digital code of DNA

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