Generalized Generosity: How the Norm of Generalized Reciprocity Bridges Collective Forms of Social Exchange

Abstract

This study examines the potential for small-scale acts of giving that are not directly reciprocated, or generalized generosities, to build social bonds and promote contributions to the group. Social exchange theorists define such acts as generalized exchange. The potential for generalized exchange to build strong social bonds relative to other forms of exchange is the subject of theoretical debate. In this article, I build on two prominent theories of social exchange—affect theory and the theory of reciprocity—to propose that a strong norm of generalized reciprocity may bridge the connective benefits of generalized exchange with the connective benefits of productive exchange, which is a collaborative form of social exchange that involves sharing pooled resources. I argue that a strong norm of generalized reciprocity will activate mechanisms theorized to build strong social bonds in generalized and productive exchange systems, and will promote additional behavioral investments into the group. I test my argument with a controlled laboratory experiment, finding strong support for the proposed causal model. The results of this study have implications for research on generosity, collective action, collaboration, sense of community, and social capital.

How and why non-balanced reciprocity differently influence employees’ compliance behavior: The mediating role of thriving and the moderating roles of perceived cognitive capabilities of artificial intelligence and conscientiousness

“…Existing studies have demonstrated that individuals' thriving at work, as an internal self-regulatory psychological state (Porath et al, 2012), could be the mechanism linking exchange relationship perception and outcomes at work (Xu et al, 2017;Chang and Busser, 2020). This finding is theoretically important because exchange relationship perception can affect an individuals' (Meier and Semmer, 2013;Quratulain et al, 2018;Whitham, 2021). Our findings suggests that the selfregulatory psychological consequences of how non-balanced reciprocity may have wide behavioral implications.…”

Public responses to foreign protectionism: Evidence from the US-China trade war

“…Public attitudes on trade should also reflect a second type of reciprocity that has received relatively less attention in the field of International Relations: “generalized reciprocity.” Generalized reciprocity exists when one agent’s behavior toward a second agent affects the latter’s willingness to cooperate with all actors. 3 In other words, whereas direct reciprocity implies that Player A’s actions towards Player B influence B’s actions towards A, generalized reciprocity implies that A’s behavior towards B will influence B’s behavior beyond their interactions with A. Laboratory-based experiments consistently show that cooperative and un-cooperative behavior spreads in this manner: subjects that are on the receiving end of a cooperative or generous (uncooperative or ungenerous) act in one interaction are more likely to behave in a cooperative or generous (uncooperative or ungenerous) manner towards unconnected third parties (Berkowitz & Daniels, 1964 ; Dufwenberg et al, 2001 ; Fowler & Christakis, 2010 ; Gray et al, 2014 ; Greiner & Levati, 2005 ; Simpson et al, 2018 ; Stanca, 2009 ; Whitham, 2021 ; Zitek et al, 2010 ).…”

“…In the context of trade policy, a foreign country’s trade barriers may generate feelings of resentment, causing individuals to feel that their country should also be entitled to raise import barriers themselves. Second, when individuals learn that one foreign country is protectionist, they may change their views about the strength of the global norm surrounding free trade (Stanca, 2009 , 192; Whitham, 2021 ). If someone believes that norms of cooperation and free trade are widely ignored, they are likely to conclude that their country should not abide by these conventions either (Goldstein, 1998 ).…”

“…We argue that individuals also care about a second form of reciprocity, known as generalized reciprocity . Prior studies from social psychology and behavioral economics find consistent evidence of generalized reciprocity: individuals that are treated poorly by one actor do not just reduce their cooperation with the offending actor—they become less cooperative in all of their social interactions, regardless of who they are interacting with (Berkowitz & Daniels, 1964 ; Dufwenberg et al, 2001 ; Fowler & Christakis, 2010 ; Gray et al, 2014 ; Greiner & Levati, 2005 ; Simpson et al, 2018 ; Stanca, 2009 ; Whitham, 2021 ; Zitek et al, 2010 ). We argue that generalized reciprocity also shapes public opinion towards international trade.…”

Effects of Knowledge Hiding in Dual Teaching Methods on Students’ Performance—Evidence From Physical Education Department Students

“…Another premise is that a person begins an encounter with the goal of maximizing profit at the lowest possible expense; the individual is motivated by, “What s in it for me?” A third assumption is that people analyze the profit and expense of doing something before doing it. Finally, the theory posits that people are aware that the pay-out will differ from one person to another, as well as from one person to another over time ( Whitham, 2021 ). Several researchers have found the engagement or disengagement of the workers due to social exchange of behaviors (knowledge-hiding behavior in this case) and concluded that certain behaviors could lead to disengagement and adversely impacted performance ( Yin, 2018 ).…”