Genetically modified plants are an alternative to oily fish for providing n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the human diet: A summary of the findings of a Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council funded project

Abstract

The n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) present primarily in oily fish, namely eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are important components of cell membranes that are needed for normal development and cell function. Humans have very limited capacity for EPA and DHA synthesis from alinolenic acid and so they must be obtained pre-formed from the diet. However, perceived unpalatability of oily fish and fish oil concerns about contamination with environmental pollutants, dietary choices that exclude fish and animal products, and price limit the effectiveness of recommendations for EPA and DHA intakes. Moreover, marine sources of EPA and DHA are diminishing in the face of increasing demands. Therefore, an alternative source of EPA and DHA is needed that is broadly acceptable, can be upscaled and is sustainable. This review discusses these challenges and, using findings from recent nutritional trials, explains how they may be overcome by seed oils from transgenic plants engineered to produce EPA and DHA. Trials in healthy men and women assessed the acute uptake and appearance in blood over 8 hours of EPA and DHA from transgenic Camelina sativa compared to fish oil, and the incorporation of these PUFA into blood lipids after dietary supplementation. The findings showed that postprandial EPA and DHA incorporation into blood lipids and accumulation in plasma lipids after dietary supplementation was as good as that achieved with fish oil. The oil derived from this transgenic plant was well tolerated. This review also discusses the implications for human nutrition, marine ecology and agriculture.

Healthier and more sustainable diets: What changes are needed in high‐income countries?

“…The use of novel plant‐derived sources of these fatty acids, including genetically modified plants (e.g. Camelina sativa ), is being explored as a potential alternative to marine sources (West et al, 2021).…”

Using field evaluation and systematic iteration to rationalize the accumulation of omega‐3 long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in transgenic Camelina sativa

“…Studies have demonstrated the stability of this trait in both the glasshouse and the field under environmental release (Han et al., 2020; Usher et al., 2015, 2017) and also the suitability of such plant‐derived oils as total replacements for oceanically derived fish oil in the diets of farmed fish such as salmon, sea bass and sea bream (Betancor et al., 2021; reviewed by Tocher et al., 2019). Similarly, these modified Camelina oils have recently been shown to be equivalent to fish oils in human dietary studies (West et al., 2021). Importantly, the combined levels of EPA and DHA in transgenic Camelina were significantly higher in comparison with those recently reported in parallel efforts to engineer similar accumulation in the more established commodity crop canola, indicating Camelina is a superior boutique platform for the production of these oils (Napier et al., 2019; Petrie et al., 2020).…”

Enhancing the accumulation of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in transgenic Camelina through the CRISPR‐Cas9 inactivation of the competing FAE1 pathway

“…Omega‐3 long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC‐PUFAs), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5Δ 5,8,11,14,17 ) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6Δ 4,7,10,13,16,19 ) are now accepted as being essential components of a healthy, balanced diet (Napier et al., 2019 ; West et al., 2021 ). The wild capture fisheries that supply omega‐3 fatty acids are at their maximum levels of sustainable production; therefore, attempts to meet the growing demands of an increasing population depend on alternative sources of fish oils (Tocher et al., 2019 ).…”

“…Field trials of DHA1 in the UK, USA and Canada demonstrated the omega‐3 LC‐PUFAs trait was stable in distinct geographical locations and agricultural environments (Han et al., 2020 ). In parallel, salmon feeding trials and human dietary studies using DHA1 seed oils both demonstrated that these transgenic plant‐derived oils could serve as effective replacements for marine‐derived fish oils (Betancor et al., 2018 ; West et al., 2021 ).…”

“…Health studies in humans have reported that diets with an increased omega‐6 (n‐6) to n‐3 ratio are highly pro‐thrombotic and pro‐inflammatory, and contribute to the prevalence of atherosclerosis, obesity, diabetes and a wide range of inflammation disorders (West et al., 2021 ). Therefore, we calculated the different n‐3 and n‐6 parameters (Figure 1b, c ; Figure S3 ).…”