Genome-Wide Characterization and Phylogenetic Analysis of GSK Genes in Maize and Elucidation of Their General Role in Interaction with BZR1

Abstract

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a nonreceptor serine/threonine protein kinase that is involved in diverse processes, including cell development, photomorphogenesis, biotic and abiotic stress responses, and hormone signaling. In contrast with the deeply researched GSK family in Arabidopsis and rice, maize GSKs’ common bioinformatic features and protein functions are poorly understood. In this study, we identified 11 GSK genes in the maize (Zea mays L.) genome via homologous alignment, which we named Zeama;GSKs (ZmGSKs). The results of ZmGSK protein sequences, conserved motifs, and gene structures showed high similarities with each other. The phylogenetic analyses showed that a total of 11 genes from maize were divided into four clades. Furthermore, semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis of the GSKs genes showed that ZmGSK1, ZmGSK2, ZmGSK4, ZmGSK5, ZmGSK8, ZmGSK9, ZmGSK10, and ZmGSK11 were expressed in all tissues; ZmGSK3, ZmGSK6, and ZmGSK7 were expressed in a specific organization. In addition, GSK expression profiles under hormone treatments demonstrated that the ZmGSK genes were induced under BR conditions, except for ZmGSK2 and ZmGSK5. ZmGSK genes were regulated under ABA conditions, except for ZmGSK1 and ZmGSK8. Finally, using the yeast two-hybrid and BiFC assay, we determined that clads II (ZmGSK1, ZmGSK4, ZmGSK7, ZmGSK8, and ZmGSK11) could interact with ZmBZR1. The results suggest that clade II of ZmGSKs is important for BR signaling and that ZmGSK1 may play a dominant role in BR signaling as the counterpart to BIN2. This study provides a foundation for the further study of GSK3 functions and could be helpful in devising strategies for improving maize.

Impact of Bikinin on Brassinosteroid Signaling Pathway and its Influence on Barley Development

“…In plants, the GSK3s family is represented by four groups (Saidi et al 2012). Ten genes are known in Arabidopsis (Charrier et al 2002), nine genes in rice (Oryza sativa L.) (Yoo et al 2006), eleven in maize (Zea mays L.) (Li et al 2022), and seven in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) (Groszyk et al 2018). Similar to mammals, GSK3s in plants control various developmental processes, mainly by regulating transcription factors (TFs).…”

Inhibition of the Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 Family by the Bikinin Alleviates the Long-Term Effects of Salinity in Barley

“…The GSK3 family controls many transcription factors (TFs), e.g., those regulating cell elongation and cell division, root meristem and root development, lateral root development, stomatal development, xylem differentiation, vascular cambial activity, chloroplast development, photomorphogenesis, hypocotyl elongation, floral organ development, flowering, seed development, fruit ripening, sugar content in fruits, and responses to stress (salt, drought, cold, and biotic) [ 8 ]. The GSK3s family is represented by four kinase groups [ 9 ]; nine are known to date in rice ( Oryza sativa L.) [ 10 ], seven in barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) [ 11 ], eleven in maize ( Zea mays L.) [ 12 ], and ten in Arabidopsis ( Arabidopsis thaliana L.) [ 13 ]. At low BR concentrations, GSK3 phosphorylates Brassinzaole Resistant 1 (BZR1), one of the major TFs, leading to its proteasomal degradation [ 14 ].…”