SummaryCurrently, symbiotic rhizobia (sl., rhizobium) refer to the soil bacteria in aand b-Proteobacteria that can induce root and/or stem nodules on some legumes and a few of nonlegumes. In the nodules, rhizobia convert the inert dinitrogen gas (N 2 ) into ammonia (NH 3 ) and supply them as nitrogen nutrient to the host plant. In general, this symbiotic association presents specificity between rhizobial and leguminous species, and most of the rhizobia use lipochitooligosaccharides, so called Nod factor (NF), for cooperating with their host plant to initiate the formation of nodule primordium and to inhibit the plant immunity. Besides NF, effectors secreted by type III secretion system (T3SS), exopolysaccharides and many microbeassociated molecular patterns in the rhizobia also play important roles in nodulation and immunity response between rhizobia and legumes. However, the promiscuous hosts like Glycine max and Sophora flavescens can nodulate with various rhizobial species harbouring diverse symbiosis genes in different soils, meaning that the nodulation specificity/efficiency might be mainly determined by the host plants and regulated by the soil conditions in a certain cases. Based on previous studies on rhizobial application, we propose a '1+nÀN' model to promote the function of symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF) in agricultural practice, where '1' refers to appreciate rhizobium; '+n' means the addition of multiple trace elements and PGPR bacteria; and 'ÀN' implies the reduction of chemical nitrogen fertilizer. Finally, open questions in the SNF field are raised to future think deeply and researches.
Current rhizobial taxonomic outline and use of genome sequence in rhizobial systematicsCurrently, all the symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria associating with legumes are found in the Phylum Proteobacteria, mainly in the Classes Alphaproteobacteria (a-rhizobia) and Betaproteobacteria (b-rhizobia), but maybe also Gammaproteobacteria (c-rhizobia) (Shiraishi et al. 2010) , with about 180 species in 20 genera at the time of writing (Fig. 1). Among them, a-rhizobia are the most common group with a very wide distribution in biogeography and host plants, and beta-rhizobia are also well established with specific legumes though less widely distributed.It is common that symbiotic rhizobia are usually intermingled with nonsymbiotic bacteria at different taxonomic levels. For example, a group of nonsymbiotic bacteria isolated from maize root endosphere, Rhizobium