“…This spatial dependency has been recognized and researchers use, for example, geographic information systems (GIS) to map unit nonresponse in surveys and to identify areas with especially low participation rates in social surveys (Abbott and Compton, 2014;N. Bates and Mulry, 2011;Hansen et al, 2007). Related to this insight in the geographic correlates of survey nonresponse, researchers have turned to widely available aggregated measures to construct survey weights to minimize the impact of nonresponse bias, either by means of including aggregated measures and random eects when calculating inverse-probability weights or by means of calibration (Erdman and N. Bates, 2017;Kreuter, Olson, et al, 2010;Skinner and D'arrigo, 2011;Valliant, Dever, and Kreuter, 2018).…”