Geophagy among pregnant and lactating women in Bondo District, western Kenya

Abstract

Geophagy was studied among 827 pregnant women in western Kenya, during and after pregnancy. The women were recruited at a gestational age of 14-24 weeks and followed-up to 6 months post-partum. The median age (range) of the women was 23 years and median parity 2. At recruitment, 378 were eating earth, of which most (65%) reported earth-eating before pregnancy. The preferred type of earth eaten was soft stone, known locally as odowa (54.2%) and earth from termite mounds (42.8%). The prevalence remained high during pregnancy, and then declined to 34.5% and 29.6% at 3 and 6 months post-partum respectively (P < 0.001). The mean daily earth intake was 44.5 g during pregnancy, which declined to 25.5 g during lactation (P < 0.001). A random sample of 204 stools was collected from the women and analysed for silica content as a tracer for earth-eating. The mean silica content was 2.1% of the dry weight of stool. Geophagous women had a higher mean silica content than the non-geophagous ones (3.1% vs. 1.4%, P < 0.001). Faecal silica and reported geophagy were strongly correlated (P < 0.001).

Earth-eating and reinfection with intestinal helminths among pregnant and lactating women in western Kenya

“…As reported previously (Luoba et al 2004), 45.7% were geophagous. The age of the women or their area of residence (a rough proxy of socio-economic differences) had no impact on this prevalence; neither were basic socio-economic factors significantly linked to geophagy (Luoba et al 2004). The women indicated a clear preference for particular kinds of earth: 54.2% ate 'soft stone' while 42.8% ate earth from termite mounds, others ate earth from earthen walls of houses and from gullies.…”

Geophagy as risk behaviour for gastrointestinal nematode infections among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in a humid tropical zone of Nigeria

“…A. lumbricoides and hookworm infections were both significantly associated with geophagy, but no association was established between geophagy and T. trichiura or S. stercoralis. In consonant with results of previous studies 13,23 our present data, found that geophagy was associated with A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura and hookworm infections among pregnant women. Association of A. lumbricoides with geophagy was also recorded among school children in Kenya, Guinea and South Africa 6,9,26 .…”

“…The geophagous prevalence recorded is similar to others reported elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa 10,11,13 . The results further revealed that although geophagy has been widely regarded as an obligatory response to a physiologic demand during pregnancy 9 , the behaviour is accepted culturally and perceived as a symbol of reproduction and fertility in the study area.…”

“…Although geophagy is usually regarded as a response to physiologic demand during pregnancy, the behaviour is culturally and widely accepted especially among pregnant women globally 2,9 . In many tropical sub-Saharan countries where this behaviour is regarded as a response to obligatory physiologic demand, the prevalence among pregnant women has ranged from 28, 42, 46 and 65% in Tanzania, Namibia, Ghana and Kenya, respectively 5,6,10,11,12,13 . The health benefits derived from geophagic behaviour continue to be subjects of debate.…”

“…Geophagous behaviour has long been a suspected source of soil-transmitted helminth infections 2,3,17 . The effect of geophagy on pregnant women as a consequence of intestinal nematode infection has not been extensively studied although available information suggests that it is especially common among this category of women 7,13 . A pilot survey conducted in association with Local Government Health Committee had shown that geophagy was widely practiced in Ebonyi State, Nigeria by pregnant women.…”