Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?

Abstract

Survey research finds that mothers suffer a substantial wage penalty, although the causal mechanism producing it remains elusive. The authors employed a laboratory experiment to evaluate the hypothesis that status-based discrimination plays an important role and an audit study of actual employers to assess its real-world implications. In both studies, participants evaluated application materials for a pair of same-gender equally qualified job candidates who differed on parental status. The laboratory experiment found that mothers were penalized on a host of measures, including perceived competence and recommended starting salary. Men were not penalized for, and sometimes benefited from, being a parent. The audit study showed that actual employers discriminate against mothers, but not against fathers.Mothers experience disadvantages in the workplace in addition to those commonly associated with gender. For example, two recent studies find that employed mothers in the United States suffer a per-child wage penalty of approximately 5%, on average, after controlling for the usual human capital and occupational factors that affect wages (Budig and England 2001;Anderson, Binder, and Krause 2003). In a summary of economic research, Crittenden (2001) concludes that, for those under the age of 35, the pay gap between mothers and nonmothers is larger than the pay gap between men and women. As Glass (2004) notes, employed mothers are 1 We thank Pi-

Unemployment scarring by gender: Human capital depreciation or stigmatization? Longitudinal evidence from the Netherlands, 1980–2000

“…These results are in line with findings from earlier studies that find profound evidence of a parenthood wage penalty in the United States (Correll et al, 2007;Budig and Hodges, 2010). Apparently, such penalties are not specific to the United States but also evident in the Netherlands.…”

“…Existing research confirms that employers' hiring decisions are strongly influenced by one's parenthood status (Budig and England, 2001;Budig and Hodges, 2010;Correll et al, 2007;England, 2005;Gangl and Ziefle, 2009). The literature suggests that employers discriminate against working mothers in terms of hiring decisions, promotion opportunities, and wages, but not against fathers.…”

“…The literature suggests that employers discriminate against working mothers in terms of hiring decisions, promotion opportunities, and wages, but not against fathers. According to Correll et al (2007), employer discrimination relates to the cultural understanding of the motherhood role. Especially in societies in which women are expected to take care of their children, employers -unconsciously -prejudge working mothers as less productive and less competent (Ridgeway and Correll, 2004).…”

Preference effects on friendship choice: Evidence from an online field experiment

“…Additionally, the field experiment measures people's real behavior in their social lives, which has more external validity than in laboratory experiment settings. In past sociological studies, the field experiment method has mainly been used to study discrimination (e.g., Correll et al, 2007;Pager et al, 2009;Tilcsik, 2011). We recommend that researchers may adapt the field experiment method to studying broader topics concerning different types of interpersonal relationships, such as friendship, dating, risk sharing, assistance, and so on.…”

We specialize in change leadership: A call for hospitalists to lead the quest for workforce gender equity

“…[16][17][18] For example, an elegant study conducted by Correll et al identified a "motherhood penalty," where indicating membership in the elementary school parent-teacher organization on one's curriculum vitae hurt women's chances of employment and pay, but actually helped men. 19 Gender stereotypes exist, even among those who do not support their content. The universal reinforcement of such stereotypes over time leads to implicit but prescriptive rules about how women and men should act.…”