Global, regional and national sodium intakes in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis of 24 h urinary sodium excretion and dietary surveys worldwide

Abstract

ObjectivesTo estimate global, regional (21 regions) and national (187 countries) sodium intakes in adults in 1990 and 2010.DesignBayesian hierarchical modelling using all identifiable primary sources.Data sources and eligibilityWe searched and obtained published and unpublished data from 142 surveys of 24 h urinary sodium and 103 of dietary sodium conducted between 1980 and 2010 across 66 countries. Dietary estimates were converted to urine equivalents based on 79 pairs of dual measurements.Modelling methodsBayesian hierarchical modelling used survey data and their characteristics to estimate mean sodium intake, by sex, 5 years age group and associated uncertainty for persons aged 20+ in 187 countries in 1990 and 2010. Country-level covariates were national income/person and composition of food supplies.Main outcome measuresMean sodium intake (g/day) as estimable by 24 h urine collections, without adjustment for non-urinary losses.ResultsIn 2010, global mean sodium intake was 3.95 g/day (95% uncertainty interval: 3.89 to 4.01). This was nearly twice the WHO recommended limit of 2 g/day and equivalent to 10.06 (9.88–10.21) g/day of salt. Intake in men was ∼10% higher than in women; differences by age were small. Intakes were highest in East Asia, Central Asia and Eastern Europe (mean >4.2 g/day) and in Central Europe and Middle East/North Africa (3.9–4.2 g/day). Regional mean intakes in North America, Western Europe and Australia/New Zealand ranged from 3.4 to 3.8 g/day. Intakes were lower (<3.3 g/day), but more uncertain, in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Between 1990 and 2010, modest, but uncertain, increases in sodium intakes were identified.ConclusionsSodium intakes exceed the recommended levels in almost all countries with small differences by age and sex. Virtually all populations would benefit from sodium reduction, supported by enhanced surveillance.

Saline Drinking Water and Salt in Diet: An Approximate Picture of the Situation in a Coastal Area of Southeastern Bangladesh

“…The results of the diet survey showed that the average amount of salt consumed in the surveyed households was less than what was reported in previous studies (de Brito-Ashurst et al 2009;Powles et al 2013). As the level of salinity in the drinking water also was not high, the overall situation in the study area did not seem to be that serious.…”

“…Even if people could only get water with sodium levels as high as 374.3-817.0 mg/L-equivalent to salt intakes of 1.90-4.15 g/day, assuming an intake of 2 L of water per daythe current level of salinity in drinking water in the coastal zones of Bangladesh would still be acceptable to the human body considering people in the central Asian countries Fig. 9 Spatial distribution of salt intake in the study area in Chakaria Upazila, Bangladesh, 12 February-13 May 2016 consume 14.01 g of salt per day (Powles et al 2013), while the average salt intake by diet in Bangladesh is 9-10 g/day. But it will take time for the human body to adapt to this kind of change, and it is uncertain how sudden the environmental change is.…”

“…Rasheed et al (2014) reported that the mean salt consumption of the studied population in a costal area was 6.7 g/day. The level of salt intake by diet in Bangladesh is not that high compared to the mean salt intake of 10.06 g/day worldwide-central Asian countries had the highest salt intake at 14.01 g/day (Powles et al 2013). Considering the fact that the World Health Organization (WHO) suggested the recommended dietary salt intake is 5 g/day (WHO 2013), the level of salt intake in Bangladesh is not small and it is better to avoid additional salt intake by drinking water.…”

“…Powles et al (2013) estimated mean salt intake from dietary sources in Bangladesh as 9.00 g/day and de Brito-Ashurst et al (2009) estimated that the traditional Bangladeshi diet provides approximately 10 g of salt per day, without breakfast or snacks. Rasheed et al (2014) reported that the mean salt consumption of the studied population in a costal area was 6.7 g/day.…”

Úr gögnum Hjartaverndar: Faraldsfræði kransæðasjúkdóma á Íslandi í hálfa öld

“…41,42 Saltinntaka á Íslandi hefur þó staðið nokkurn veginn í stað á árabilinu 1990 til 2010 en er samt sem áður um það bil 9 g/dag að meðaltali, sem jafngildir 3,6 g/dag af natríum og er naestum tvöfalt það magn sem WHO maelir með. 42 Það er því ólíklegt að breyting á saltinntöku skýri ein og sér fyrrnefnda laekkun í meðaltali blóðþrýstings hér á landi. Líklega vega aðrir þaettir þyngra.…”