Global toxicology, ecophysiology and population relationships of the chainforming PST dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum

Genetic analyses of floating Ulva prolifera in the Yellow Sea suggest a unique ecotype

“…Many ecotypes have been reported within several HAB (harmful algae bloom)-caused microalgae species based on genetic analysis (Fredrickson et al, 2011;Piccini et al, 2011). The intraspecific variations, such as morphological, genetic characters, maximum growth, photosynthesis rates, and tolerance of adversity (Thessen et al, 2009), were possibly important factors for their competitive success (Hallegraeff et al, 2012). The definition of this floating U. prolifera as a unique ecotype is critical to the further investigation and monitor of the Yellow Sea green tide.…”

Characterization of Benzoyl Saxitoxin Analogs from the Toxigenic Marine Dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum by Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Ion-Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

“…Blooms of this dinoflagellate have caused intoxications and death of marine fauna and human consumers of bivalve mollusks that have accumulated toxins via suspension-feeding upon the plankton [1]. This species is the only gymnodinioid dinoflagellate known to produce these toxins [2]. First described from the Gulf of California in 1943 [3], G. catenatum has been reported with increasing frequency from the 1970s, and to date it has been found along the coastlines of all continents except Antarctica [2,4].…”

“…This species is the only gymnodinioid dinoflagellate known to produce these toxins [2]. First described from the Gulf of California in 1943 [3], G. catenatum has been reported with increasing frequency from the 1970s, and to date it has been found along the coastlines of all continents except Antarctica [2,4]. The species is widely distributed in both global hemispheres, but occurs primarily in temperate and sub-tropical waters, producing major blooms on the coast of Atlantic Iberia, Tasmania, southern Australia, and in Mexico along the Pacific coast [5].…”

“…A recent review on G. catenatum toxin analogs reports on studies conducted over the last several decades on the biogeographical relationships populations of this species based on their respective toxin profiles as biochemical markers [2]. The known carbamoyl, decarbamoyl, and sulfocarbamoyl analogs found among G. catenatum natural populations and cultured isolates, currently comprise 18 naturally occurring derivatives.…”

“…Thus far, the production of benzoyl analogs has been identified only in G. catenatum, but these toxins have been reported in different strains from diverse locations around the world (as mentioned in the review by [2]) and in bivalve mollusks that have fed upon natural blooms of this species. Extensive toxicity studies have not been conducted with all the analogs, mainly due to a lack of purified toxins, but their structures provide information to hypothesize about their potency.…”