Greenhouse gas emissions as sustainability indicators in agricultural sectors’ adaptation to climate change: Policy implications

Abstract

Effective adaptation action to climate change requires a balance between reducing vulnerabilities and managing risks. However, in most adaptation actions, risks such as greenhouse gas emissions, and those that impose negative externalities on global communities and ecosystems, are often overlooked. This article contextualises adaptation of maize stover (MS) as a dairy cattle feed among resource-poor farmers in western Kenya. In so doing, it attempts to establish the nexus between resource constraint and maladaptation to climate change. Simulation of methane emissions was carried out from secondary data and a survey of dairy cattle feeding strategies by resource-poor farmers. The level of greenhouse gas emissions in dairy feeding strategies is used as a measure and indicator of sustainability. Using disaster risk reduction principles, policymakers and community of practice in climate change action are encouraged to design and implement policies and strategies that take cognisance of poverty–maladaptation–environmental degradation nexus.

Unpacking the Nexus between Policy Field, Risk Management and Environmental Externalities in Adaptation Planning: The Case of Smallholder Farmer Production Systems, Western Kenya

“…The increasing supply of milk from smallholder farmers across agro-ecosystems in Kenya is however accounted for by increased number of producers rather than productivity in such systems. This production strategy results in high production costs and presents ecological threats to land, soil, water, and biodiversity (Bebe et al, 2016), as well as increased methane emission risks (Volenzo et al 2019;FA0, 2019). This is especially true for the study area from a view point of weather variability, underlying and on-going vulnerabilities, such as low fodder acreages and land subdivision, all which amplifies production risks.…”

“…The GHG emissions are expected to rise, consistent with a growing population and expanding economy, with emissions increasing from 73 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e) in 2010 to 143 MtCO2e in 2030 (G.o.K, 2017). The observation is critical in that maladaptation, moreso the use of Ms without and/ or suboptimal supplementation levels coping strategies as a result of market risks are common (Volenzo, Odiyo, & Obiri, 2019). Supplementary file (SP1) provides the simulated methane emissions from various adaptation strategies in dairy feeding.…”

“…In the study area majority of the farmers tended to exclusively rely on Ms as a risk management strategy, a response that is attributed to the significant market and price risks. Such strategies increase methane emissions by up to 30% per unit of milk produced (Volenzo et al, 2019). SP 2: Effect of output price variations on risk management at different supplementation levels of basal diets on Gross Margin Table (3) provides variance in prices in the main dairy feeding strategies in the study area.…”

Perception of Environmental Spillovers across Scale in Climate Change Adaptation Planning: The Case of Small-Scale Farmers’ Irrigation Strategies, Kenya

“…individual farm level [73], the farmer as a primary actor in adaptation planning, is motivated by short-term reactive incremental adaptation that are biased towards immediate economic interests and/or survival objectives other than long-term sustainable risk reduction initiatives [9,47,74]. Prioritisation of narrow economic interests and immediate payoffs as opposed to long term social good, discounts the importance of future risks and undermine sustainability of ecosystems [1,75].…”

Perception of Environmental Spillovers Across Scale in Climate Change Adaptation Planning: The Case of Small-Scale Farmers’ Irrigation Strategies, Kenya

“…Though changes in external stimuli, such as temperature and moisture are sources of risks that trigger development of robust adaptation strategies at micro i.e., individual farm level [70], the farmer as a primary actor in adaptation planning, is motivated by short-term reactive incremental adaptation preferences that are biased towards immediate economic interests and/or survival objectives other than long-term sustainable risk reduction initiatives [9,46,71]. The prioritisation of narrow economic interests and immediate payoffs as opposed to long term social good, discounts the importance of future risks and undermine sustainability of ecosystems [1,72].…”