Hammers, Axes, Bulls, and Blood: Some Practical Aspects of Roman Animal Sacrifice

Abstract

Animal sacrifice was a central component of ancient Roman religion, but scholars have tended to focus on the symbolic aspects of these rituals, while glossing over the practical challenges involved in killing large, potentially unruly creatures, such as bulls. The traditional explanation is that the animal was struck on the head with a hammer or an axe to stun it, then had its throat cut. Precisely how axes, hammers, and knives were employed remains unexplained. This article draws upon ancient sculpture, comparative historical sources, and animal physiology to argue that the standard interpretation is incomplete, and, in its place, offers a detailed analysis of exactly how the killing and bleeding of bovines was accomplished and the distinct purposes of hammers and axes within these rituals.

The Contribution of Zooarchaeology

“…Integration with other classes of evidence greatly enhances the value of the macroscopic faunal data on which this chapter has focussed. For example, textual and iconographic sources reveal culturally important detail regarding the ritual and symbolism of sacrificial slaughter (e.g., Aldrete, 2014), but zooarchaeology clarifies the extent to which the Romans consumed 'profane' as well as 'sacred' meat (Scheid, 2012, 90;Lachiche and Deschler-Erb, 2007;Lepetz, 2007). Iconographic representations of butchery and slaughter, coupled with finds of the tools depicted and 21 21 with experimental replication have shed rewarding light on the methods, traditions, aims and constraints of urban, rural, military and civilian carcass processing (Lignereux and Peters, 1996;Deschler-Erb, 2006;Seetah, 2006;Maltby, 2007;Monteix, 2007).…”

Unsuccessful Sacrifice in Roman State Divination

“…In practice, animals must have struggled in these moments, as suggested by depictions in art (Fless 1995: 72;Huet 2005), and modern scholarship may have exaggerated the religious significance of their behaviour before death. For the argument with respect to Greek sacrifice, see Peirce 1993: 255-8;van Straten 1995: 100-2;van Straten 2005: 19-21;Georgoudi 2005: 131-4;Naiden 2007;Georgoudi 2008; with respect to Roman sacrifice, see Aldrete 2014. ¹⁵ As illustrated in our only surviving depiction of entrail-inspection in progress, a relief from Trajan's Forum: fragments in Musée National du Louvre, Paris, MA 978, 1089 and Collection Valentin de Courcel, Paris. dizzying number of signs indicating either the gods' acceptance or rejection of the sacrifice.¹⁶ The liver seems to have been especially significant, and was examined for the presence or absence of what Romans called its 'head' (caput), as well as for indications in other parts of it, the pars hostilis and the pars familiaris, in addition to the fibrae (extremities, perhaps of the liver), and fissa (perhaps veins, fissures, or indentations).…”

Roman Sacrifice, Inside and Out

“… 25 Ryberg 1955: figs 83 and 89b. Another famous instance of this scene is on the Boscoreale cup (Aldrete 2014: 33, fig. 1). …”