Health and Risk Behaviors of Bystanders: An Integrative Theoretical Model of Bystanders’ Reactions to Mistreatment

Abstract

This article constructs a comprehensive theoretical model that outlines bystanders’ emotional and behavioral responses to the mistreatment of adolescent peers. The model captures bystanders’ risk and health risk behaviors, which have been overlooked in the context of their reactions; when addressed at all in connection with bystanders of bullying among adolescents, they have been treated separately. Here, we present bystanders’ emotional and cognitive reactions and their impact on bystanders’ responses including a set of responses that demonstrate risk and health risk behaviors that are directed to the bystander as a victim by proxy. The theoretical framework is the conservation of resources theory, which posits that personal resources (i.e., potency and moral disengagement) and social resources impact the process that leads to bystanders’ reactions. Previous models have overlooked the integrative viewpoint of bystanders, and comprehensive models that explain bystanders’ behavioral and emotional responses have received little attention especially with regards to adolescents. Two recent models overlooked core features embedded in the current model, including the risk and health risk behaviors that it integrates. The proposed model presents a novel and more comprehensive view of bystanders’ reactions and the process underlying these reactions. It integrates existing knowledge embedded in other existing models. At the same time, this perspective indicates the centricity of potency as a key resource that dictates the emotional response and behaviors of bystanders. This potentially allows for new applications in the mitigation of adverse impacts that follow the witnessing of mistreatment. The article discusses these applications, which are based on previous findings, their implications for practice, and directions for future empirical research necessary to validate the model.

A Gender-Focused Prism on the Long-Term Impact of Teachers’ Emotional Mistreatment on Resilience: Do Men and Women Differ in Their Quest for Social-Emotional Resources in a Masculine Society?

“…Teachers as potential bystanders should not only identify but also be able to support the targets of mistreatment [89][90][91]. This can be achieved through comprehensive EI training for teachers, who could then be able to create a supportive, caring, and respectful climate in their class, and develop resilience and social emotional skills in their students through modelling, daily interactions, and direct teaching.…”

Freezing Effect and Bystander Effect: Overlaps and Differences

“…The impact extends beyond direct victims to include bystanders, who can experience traumatic responses similar to those of the victims, blurring the line between victim and observer [63]. Studies have noted similarities in symptoms between bystanders and victims, including physiological arousal, reduced empathy [64], desensitization to negative behaviors in schools [65][66][67], and overall risky and negative behaviors [53,55]. Common feelings of isolation and inefficacy [53] are also observed.…”

“…According to a study by Itzkovich et al, bystanders in cases of bullying are indirect victims, "by proxy", a position that affects their well-being and psychological health. In fact, a correlation has been demonstrated between witnessing an act of bullying and suicidal ideation, depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress, as well as repression of empathy among bystanders and increased feelings of guilt [65]. The theoretical model employed by the authors is the COR (conservation of resources) theory, through which it is possible to observe bystanders' reactions to bullying in light of their individual coping resources, which help reduce exposure to stressors.…”

“…Difficulty in decision-making: People in the bystander effect may experience difficulty in making decisions regarding the action to take. They may feel indecisive about what to do or may seek guidance or initiative from others [65].…”

“…Psychological Consequences: Psychological Consequences: Increased anxiety and stress: The bystander effect can lead to increased emotional anxiety and stress. Awareness of the danger or the responsibility to intervene can cause a sense of agitation and worry [65].…”