Height Velocity and Skeletal Maturation in Elite Female Rhythmic Gymnasts

Abstract

Rhythmic gymnasts performing under conditions of high intensity are exposed to particularly high levels of psychological stress and intense physical training, factors that can contribute to the observed delay in skeletal maturation and pubertal development, and alter optimal growth. The study was conducted in the field, during the International, European, and World Rhythmic Sports Gymnastics Championships of the years 1997-2000, and included 104 elite female rhythmic gymnasts, aged 12-23 yr. The study included height and weight measurements, estimation of body fat and skeletal maturation, and registration of parental height. Height, weight, target height, and predicted adult height were expressed as the SD score of the mean height and weight for age, according to Tanner's standards. Gymnasts were taller and thinner than average for age, with height velocity SD score for each age group above the 50th percentile for all age groups (n = 140, mean = 1.9 +/- 2.5). Interestingly, although height velocity in normal girls comes to an end by the age of 15, in our examined rhythmic gymnasts it continues up to the age of 18. There was a delay of skeletal maturation of 1.8 yr (n = 72, r = 0.730, P < 0.001), compensated by an acceleration of height velocity toward the end of puberty. The final adult height was identical to the estimated predicted height at first evaluation, and significantly higher than the genetically determined target height (n = 35, r = 0.58, P < 0.001), denoting that genetic predisposition to final height is not only achieved, but even exceeded. Using multiple regression analysis, target height was the only independent parameter that has been proven to influence positively the height velocity SD score (b = 0.233, t = 2.215, P = 0.029), denoting that genetic predisposition remains the main driving force for the observed efficient catch up growth. In conclusion, the elite rhythmic gymnasts compensate for their loss of pubertal growth spurt by a late acceleration of linear growth. Despite the delay in skeletal maturation, genetic predisposition of growth is not only preserved, but even exceeded.

The Influence of Intensive Physical Exercise on Bone Acquisition in Adolescent Elite Female and Male Artistic Gymnasts

“…Bone age delay in both males and females was more pronounced in the latter. We and others have previously shown that the development of puberty in rhythmic gymnasts follows the bone age rather than the chronological age (9,19,21). Low body weight and low body fat reflect an energy deficit, evident in AG, as a consequence of intensive physical training (high energy output) and low caloric diet (low energy input).…”

“…The protocol is presented in detail elsewhere (9). Briefly, it included noninvasive clinical and laboratory determinations as well as the completion of a questionnaire.…”

Effects of sports training in adolescence on growth, puberty and bone health

“…By studying female elite rhythmic gymnasts (n ¼ 104, age 12-23 years, mean sports training 32 h/ week), Georgopoulos's group [12] demonstrated that adult height was not significantly different from predicted height estimated at first evaluation and was significantly higher than target height ( Figure 1). In addition, the examined gymnasts continued to increase in height up to the age of 18 years, when final adult height has already been reached in normal growing girls [6].…”

“…Eliakim and co-workers [15] followed a group of adolescent males involved in Figure 1. Target height and adult height in female elite rhythmic gymnasts (a; drawn from data reported in [12]) and female elite artistic gymnasts (b; drawn from data reported in [14]); while the former subjects reached their genetic target height, the latter subjects did not (see text). (Data represent mean +1 SD.)…”

Nutritional Recommendations for Divers

“…Women who exercise and maintain normal menstrual cycles appear to have higher bone mineral density than amenorrheic women, and low bone mineral density has been reported for adult athletes with amenorrhea (Arasheben et al, 2011). Delayed menarche, menstrual irregularities, and low body fat are frequently seen in aesthetic athletes (Georgopoulos et al, 2001) but, contrary to the commonly held belief that the low body fat is principally responsible for the menstrual dysfunction, it appears that low energy availability is the primary cause (Loucks, 2003). According to Loucks (2003), dysfunction of reproductive hormones occurs below 20-30 kcal/ kg lean body mass/day of energy availability (energy consumed minus exercise energy expended in training).…”