Hepatitis B virus detected in paper currencies in a densely populated city of India: A plausible source of horizontal transmission?

Abstract

BACKGROUND The recent rise in the incidence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections in a densely populated city of eastern India (“mixing vessel” of people of varied socio-economic and immune status) prompted this study. Applying saliva on fingers for enumerating bank notes is a common practice in the Indian subcontinent. Paper notes may be a potential source of “horizontal” transmission of this virus, especially if there are cuts/bruises on the oral mucous membrane or skin. AIM To investigate whether paper currencies could be a plausible mode of horizontal transmission of HBV infection. METHODS Polymerase chain reactions (PCR) followed by nucleotide sequencing was done for the detection of HBV. Hepatitis B virus surface antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(HBsAg ELISA) was performed on all HBV deoxyribonucleic acid-positive samples to check the detectability of the virus. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was carried out for visual confirmation of HBV particles in ultracentrifuged/immunoprecipitated samples from currency paper washings. RESULTS HBV-specific PCRs on pellets obtained after ultracentrifugation/ immunoprecipitation of the currency paper washings detected potentially intact/viable HBV (genotype D2) in 7.14% of samples ( n = 70). AFM gave the visual confirmation of HBV particles in ultracentrifuged/immunoprecipitated samples from currency paper washings. However, HBV isolates from the currency notes could not be detected by HBsAg ELISA. CONCLUSION It is a common practice in the Indian subcontinent to count paper currencies by applying saliva on fingertips. Paper notes may be a potential source of “horizontal” transmission of this virus, especially if there are cuts/bruises on the oral mucous membrane or skin, but it was practically not possible to demonstrate experimentally such transmission. Detection of potentially intact/viable and “occult” HBV from currency poses potential risk of silent transmission of this virus among the general population.

Evidences support that dengue virus can impart broad‐spectrum immunity against betacoronaviruses in dengue endemic regions

“…HBV positive serum samples from Kolkata were collected under a community‐based Metabolic Health Screening Program named “From Food to Nutrition Security” run by a non‐profit organization, SWANIRVAR. HBV DNA PCR was conducted using previously designed primers and PCR conditions 40 …”

Stability of pathogens on banknotes and coins: A narrative review

“…In India, 7% of banknotes tested were positive for hepatitis B virus (HBV) RNA and the presence of HBV particles was confirmed by atomic force microscopy. However, no HBs antigen was detectable suggesting an absence of viable virus that could possibly cause an HBV infection 27 . In contrast, viable rotavirus was isolated from experimentally contaminated paper currency and could therefore play a role in the transmission in hospitals, nursing homes and day‐care centers.…”

“…However, no HBs antigen was detectable suggesting an absence of viable virus that could possibly cause an HBV infection. 27 In contrast, viable rotavirus was isolated from experimentally contaminated paper currency and could therefore play a role in the transmission in hospitals, nursing homes and day-care centers. However survival rates were rather low compared to other nonporous surfaces.…”

Author affiliation addition: “Hepatitis B virus detected in paper currencies in a densely populated city of India: A plausible source of horizontal transmission?”

“…World J Hepatol 2020 Oct 27; 12(10): 775-791 [PMID: 33200016; DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v12.i10.775]. In this article[ 1 ], one of the affiliations of a joint first author and the corresponding author was not mentioned. , a joint first author, is a PhD candidate registered under Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad- 201002, India.…”