High fluoride water in Bondo-Rarieda area of Siaya County, Kenya: a hydro-geological implication on public health in the Lake Victoria Basin

Abstract

BackgroundOnly a few studies to evaluate groundwater fluoride in Eastern Africa have been undertaken outside the volcanic belt of the Great Eastern Africa Rift Valley. The extent and impact of water fluoride outside these regions therefore remain unclear. The current study evaluated fluoride levels in household water sources in Bondo-Rarieda Area in the Kenyan part of the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) and highlighted the risk posed by water fluoride to the resident communities. The results, it was anticipated, will contribute to in-depth understanding of the fluoride problem in the region.MethodsA total of 128 water samples were collected from different water sources from the entire study area and analyzed for fluoride content using ion-selective electrodes.ResultsLake Victoria was the main water source in the area but dams and open pans (39.5%), boreholes and shallow wells (23.5%), and streams (18.5%) were the principal water sources outside walking distances from the lake. The overall mean fluoride content of the water exceeded recommended limits for drinking water. The mean water fluoride was highest in Uyoma (1.39±0.84 ppm), Nyang’oma (1.00±0.59 ppm) and Asembo (0.92±0.46 ppm) and lowest in Maranda Division (0.69±0.42 ppm). Ponds (1.41±0.82 ppm), springs (1.25±0.43 ppm), dams and open pans (0.96±0.79 ppm), and streams (0.95±0.41 ppm) had highest fluoride levels but lake and river water did not have elevated fluoride levels. Groundwater fluoride decreased with increasing distance from the lake indicating that water fluoride may have hydro-geologically been translocated into the region from geochemical sources outside the area.ConclusionsLake Victoria was the main water source for the residents of Bondo-Rarieda Area. Majority of in-land residents however used water from dams, open pans, boreholes, shallow wells, ponds and streams, which was generally saline and fluoridated. It was estimated that 36% of children living in this area, who consume water from ground sources from the area could be at the risk of dental fluorosis.

Valuing excess fluoride removal for safe drinking water in Kenya

“…The health hazards resulting from fluorosis range from the less severe forms of dental mottling to severe skeletal fluorosis causing paralysis of the lower limbs (Shomar et al, 2004;Sujana et al, 2009;Wambu & Muthakia, 2011). The severity of fluorosis is determined by many factors, such as the duration of exposure, the socio-economic status of the community and the intake of locally grown food items, with the severity being increased by a lack of dietary calcium and essential vitamins (Kahama et al, 1997;WHO & UNICEF, 2012;Wambu et al, 2014). As a measure for reducing the exposure to fluoride, defluoridation of drinking water has been advocated as an alternative approach to address the adverse problems of excessive fluoride ingestion (Kahama et al, 1997;Gikunju et al, 2002;Mavura & Bailey, 2002;Moturi, 2004;Shomar et al, 2004;Njenga et al, 2005;WHO, 2006;Sujana et al, 2009;Wambu et al, 2013).…”

“…While these areas are known to have drinking water containing high levels of fluoride and the resultant effects like dental and skeletal fluorosis, not much is known about the preferences of the households in supporting a policy framework that would reduce fluoride levels in drinking water. Notably, previous research on water fluoride has mainly focused on the physical distribution of fluoride (Gikunju et al, 2002;Moturi et al, 2002;Marieta, 2007;Wambu et al, 2014), health effects of excessive water fluoride intake (Shomar et al, 2004;Ayoob & Gupta, 2006;Redda et al, 2006;Sujana et al, 2009) and on the different procedures available for removing fluoride from drinking water (Wambu & Muthakia, 2011;Chelangat, 2015).…”

A facile precipitation synthesis of mesoporous 2-line ferrihydrite with good fluoride removal properties

“…1 The presence of uoride in natural ground water is a combination of natural processes, biological activity and anthropogenic activity. 1 The presence of uoride in natural ground water is a combination of natural processes, biological activity and anthropogenic activity.…”

A bibliometric analysis of drinking water research in Africa

“…Therefore, in view of the high toxicities and the risk of high-fluoride exposure for the communities in the affected areas, the fate of fluoride in groundwater resources remains a major public health concern (Wambu et al, 2014). Figure 2 shows that the visibility of the articles increased rapidly after the year 2000.…”