“…High-frequency trading (HFT) has emerged as a transformative force in the financial markets, characterised by the use of complex algorithms and highspeed data networks to execute substantial trading volumes in fractions of a second (Hossain, 2022). This innovative approach has been enabled by advancements in data analytics and information systems, which have significantly enhanced efficiency and precision in financial operations (Jarnecic & Snape, 2014).…”