Highlighting of Urinary Sodium and Potassium among Indonesian Schoolchildren Aged 9–12 Years: The Contribution of School Food

Abstract

Background. Sodium (Na) and potassium (K), the essential nutrients, have vital role in promoting cellular growth including growth and development of children. Excessive Na intake and inadequate K consumption, which consequently increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, have been reported. Spot electrolyte urine was highly correlated and validated with gold standard to estimate electrolyte dietary intake. This study aimed at predicting sodium and potassium intake using morning spot urine among Indonesian schoolchildren. Methods. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 155 healthy elementary students aged 9–12 years. Spot urine samples were collected and analyzed for Na, K, and creatinine. Predicted 24 h Na and K excretions were compared to the Indonesian recommendation dietary allowances. The Na and K contribution from school food was reported by observing directly and the dietary recall method. Results. A total of 80 boys and 75 girls recruited as samples in this study demonstrated that their estimated urinary Na and K were 105.42 ± 66.05 mmol/day and 16.39 ± 12.57 mmol/day, respectively. Na intake was on average higher than recommended; meanwhile, almost all subjects showed very low compliance of K intake recommendation. Furthermore, food intake at school contributed to those conditions. Na and K content of school food contributed 33% and 29% of the daily intake of each nutrient and contributed 125% and 25% higher than the Na and K school standard, respectively. Conclusions. Indonesian schoolchildren aged 9–12 years are categorized by excessive Na intake and very deficient K intake. The present study highlights the need for policies in the environmental school setting to reduce Na intake and K intake.

Dietary Sodium and Potassium Intake: Data from the Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey 2016

“…In school-age children, Na intake exceeded the WHO recommendation, while K intake was below the recommended level; the Na-K ratio was 1.4 (95%CI: 1.1, 1.7). These results coincide with those obtained in Indonesian children between 9 and 12 years, who had a high Na intake (>2300 mg/day) and a low K intake (<2500 mg/day) [55]. On the other hand, in Spanish children between 9 and 13 years old, Na intake was close to 2500 mg/day, while K intake was 2800 mg/day [56].…”

Dietary Sodium and Potassium Intake: Data from the Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey 2016

“…In schoolchildren, Na consumption exceeds the WHO recommendation, while K consumption was below the recommended level; the Na / K ratio was 1.4 (95% CI 1.1, 1.7). These results coincide with those obtained in Indonesian children between 9 and 12 years, who had a high Na consumption (>2 300 mg / day) and a low K consumption (<2 mg/day) [55]. On the other hand, in Spanish children between 9 and 13 years old, Na consumption was close to 2 500 mg/day, while K consumption was 2 800 mg/day [56].…”

Micro and Macroelements in Honey and Atmospheric Pollution (NW and Central Poland)

“…The elements Na, Ca, Mg, K, S, P, and B are metals indispensable for the correct functioning of all physiological systems in the human body [74][75][76][77][78][79]. Their presence in the diet in excess or deficient quantities can lead to chronic diseases [80][81][82][83]. In the present study, most honey samples were found to have intermediate HCR levels of Mg and Ca, with only a small number demonstrating higher values.…”