Highly Valuable Fish Oil: Formation Process, Enrichment, Subsequent Utilization, and Storage of Eicosapentaenoic Acid Ethyl Esters

Abstract

In recent years, as the demand for precision nutrition is continuously increasing, scientific studies have shown that high-purity eicosapentaenoic acid ethyl ester (EPA-EE) functions more efficiently than mixed omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid preparations in diseases such as hyperlipidemia, heart disease, major depression, and heart disease; therefore, the market demand for EPA-EE is growing by the day. In this paper, we attempt to review EPA-EE from a whole-manufacturing-chain perspective. First, the extraction, refining, and ethanolysis processes (fish oil and ethanol undergo transesterification) of EPA-EE are described, emphasizing the potential of green substitute technologies. Then, the method of EPA enrichment is thoroughly detailed, the pros and cons of different methods are compared, and current developments in monomer production techniques are addressed. Finally, a summary of current advanced strategies for dealing with the low oxidative stability and low bioavailability of EPA-EE is presented. In conclusion, understanding the entire production process of EPA-EE will enable us to govern each step from a macro perspective and accomplish the best use of EPA-EE in a more cost-effective and environmentally friendly way.

Assessment of cooking methods and freezing on the nutritional value and health risks of heavy metals in four fish species consumed in Douala, Cameroon

“…Free fatty acids are oxidized via initiation, propagation and termination reactions, leading to the formation of hydroperoxides and peroxides [ 108 ]. The latter are implicated in the development of oxidative stress, cancer, skin irritation, eye damage and respiratory disorders [ 109 ]. Freezing increased significantly (P < 0.05) peroxide value in Cyprinus carpio, Arius parkii and Polydactilus quadrifilis oil compared to Ethmalosa fimbriata oil.…”

Quantification of Trimethylamine-N-Oxide and Trimethylamine in Fish Oils for Human Consumption

“…Besides fish oil supplementation, encapsulation aims also at providing fish oils as ingredients for the fortification of products such as yoghurt, goat cheese, and other products [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Consequently, refining processes are necessary [ 27 ]. Usually, one of the processing steps is deodorization, where odorous compounds are removed by steam distillation or other means, although researchers are working on gentler options to remove odors, which require less energy than high-temperature steam distillation [ 27 ].…”

“…Consequently, refining processes are necessary [ 27 ]. Usually, one of the processing steps is deodorization, where odorous compounds are removed by steam distillation or other means, although researchers are working on gentler options to remove odors, which require less energy than high-temperature steam distillation [ 27 ]. However, residual TMA and TMAO might be present, as the removal rates of some of the processing methods are significantly lower [ 27 ].…”

“…Usually, one of the processing steps is deodorization, where odorous compounds are removed by steam distillation or other means, although researchers are working on gentler options to remove odors, which require less energy than high-temperature steam distillation [ 27 ]. However, residual TMA and TMAO might be present, as the removal rates of some of the processing methods are significantly lower [ 27 ]. Furthermore, the refinement process is rarely complete, as sensory evaluation of fish oil still shows a fishy odor even after deodorization due to the incomplete deodorization.…”

Discrimination between the Triglyceride Form and the Ethyl Ester Form of Fish Oil Using Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

“…The fat in fish oil products is mainly in the form of ethyl ester, triglycerides (TG), free fatty acids (FFAs), and phospholipids (PLs), but EEFFO and TGFFO are the most common products in domestic markets [17,18]. Because its molecular structure is very close to natural fish oil, TGFFO is easier for humans to digest and absorb than EEFFO.…”