people who were somehow less than the German or Italian immigrants whose countries of national origin were equally at war with the United States but who were not interned. Common responses to the internment included feelings of betrayal, outrage, shame, and helplessness.In addition, the adverse conditions of the internment camps worsened the violations of Pat's sense of self and dignity. Victimized by violence and lack of privacy, Pat recalls shifting from being socially active to increasingly withdrawn and apathetic. As his preintemment Japanese American identity was being destroyed, the resulting void left Pat an adolescent without an integrated identity. Perceiving himself as neither American, Japanese, nor Japanese American, Pat was left with the impossibility of finding or developing an acceptable identity in place, culture, and time. In retrospect, this formidable developmental task remained incomplete for the 15-year-old Pat, and a loss of selfcohesion ensued.Fifty years later, when a flood destroyed much of Pat's home and personal possessions, like other flood victims, he showed the common signs of posttraumatic stress. In addition, as the federal application process to repair his home became increasingly complicated by bureaucratic procedures, Pat experienced overwhelming anxiety. The cognitions associated with his anxiety included suicidal ideation, helplessness, and the existential angst of questioning who he was and where he belonged. Unlike other victims who are commonly irritated by the application process, in Pat's case the governmental procedures precipitated a reactivation of the intense psychological sequelae of the internment: feelings of mistrust, shame, alienation, and a tenuous sense of identity. Pat sought therapy, and although the therapeutic process is not complete, he has reported more manageable levels of anxiety, has overcome his apathy (completing the federal relief applieation process), and has begun to experience a positive sense of identity again as a Japanese American. The clinical regimen of exploring and affirming the affect associated with his traumatic experiences, combined with providing support for redeveloping his multicultural identity, appear to promote Pat's experience of greater self-cohesion.
The Case of "Clay"Clay is an American Indian war veteran raised in San Francisco.During his military service, he was nicknamed Chief by his fellow squad members and, because of his ethnicity and appearance, was believed to have stereotypical American Indian traits (e.g., keen senses and an ability to track). Based on this assumption, he was selected to walk point (i.e., walk at the front of his squad when on patrol) and, wanting to be a team member, agreed to do so. He accepted the role of point man as a challenge and learned to do the job well without realizing the potential challenge to his identity issues. Clay struggled with con-440 GUSMAN ET AL.
