History of Women in Sports: Societal Issues

Gender Differences in Trajectories of Physical Activity Among Older Americans With Diabetes

“…Gender-related norms for physical activity may be one reason for the gender gap observed in the current study. As noted previously, in earlier periods of life, many older women were exposed to normative beliefs that discouraged women and girls from engaging in vigorous physical activity (Lutter, 1994). Given that engagement in physical activity in earlier phases of life is associated with physical activity in older adulthood (Hirvensalo & Lintunen, 2011), part of the observed gender gap may be the end result of being socialized to limit engagement in vigorous activity.…”

“…While there are undoubtedly many "constraints" that contribute to women's lower level of engagement in physical activity, research suggests that women's caregiving and familial responsibilities may play a major role (Vrazel, Saunders, & Wilcox, 2008;Wilcox, Oberrecht, Bopp, Kammermann, & McElmurray, 2005). Moreover, over the course of their lives, many older women were exposed to negative messages about women and girls' participation in sports (Lutter, 1994) and likely had limited exposure to physically active role models who could help counter these negative messages (Vrazel et al, 2008;Wilcox et al, 2005). Thus, being physically active is unlikely to have been a normative behavior for many of today's older women.…”

Perceived benefits from participation in sports: a gender study

“…Throughout history, women in sports have been portrayed as both popular heroines and unfit mothers (Lutter, 1994), depending on what society wanted them to be at the time. During the Victorian era, immigrant and pioneer women were valued for their physical strength and endurance while middle-and upper-class women tried to appear weak and helpless.…”