Holotoxin A₁ from Apostichopus japonicus inhibited oropharyngeal and intra‐abdominal candidiasis by inducing oxidative damage in Candida albicans

Abstract

Background and PurposeThe holotoxin A1, isolated from Apostichopus japonicus, exhibits potent antifungal activities, but the mechanism and efficacy against candidiasis are unclear. In this study we have studied the antifungal effects and mechanism of holotoxin A1 against Candida albicans and in murine oropharyngeal and intra‐abdominal candidiasis.Experimental ApproachThe antifungal effect of holotoxin A1 against C. albicans was tested in vitro. To explore the antifungal mechanism of holotoxin A1, the transcriptome, ROS levels, and mitochondrial function of C. albicans was evaluated. Effectiveness and systematic toxicity of holotoxin A1 in vivo was assessed in the oropharyngeal and intra‐abdominal candidiasis models in mice.Key ResultsHolotoxin A1 was a potent fungicide against C. albicans SC5314, clinical strains and drug‐resistant strains. Holotoxin A1 inhibited oxidative phosphorylation and induced oxidative damage by increasing intracellular accumulation of ROS in C. albicans. Holotoxin A1 induced dysfunction of mitochondria by depolarizing the mitochondrial membrane potential and reducing the production of ATP. Holotoxin A1 directly inhibited the enzymatic activity of mitochondrial complex I and antagonized with the rotenone, an inhibitor of complex I, against C. albicans. Meanwhile, the complex I subunit NDH51 null mutants showed a decreased susceptibility to holotoxin A1. Furthermore, holotoxin A1 significantly reduced fungal burden and infections with no significant systemic toxicity in oropharyngeal and intra‐abdominal candidiasis in murine models.Conclusion and ImplicationsHolotoxin A1 is a promising candidate for the development of novel antifungal agents against both oropharyngeal and intra‐abdominal candidiasis, especially when caused by drug‐resistant strains.