Host–virus interaction and viral evasion

Abstract

With each infectious pandemic or outbreak, the medical community feels the need to revisit basic concepts of immunology to understand and overcome the difficult times brought about by these infections. Regarding viruses, they have historically been responsible for many deaths, and such a peculiarity occurs because they are known to be obligate intracellular parasites that depend upon the host's cell machinery for their replication. Successful infection with the production of essential viral components requires constant viral evolution as a strategy to manipulate the cellular environment, including host internal factors, the host's nonspecific and adaptive immune responses to viruses, the metabolic and energetic state of the infected cell, and changes in the intracellular redox environment during the viral infection cycle. Based on this knowledge, it is fundamental to develop new therapeutic strategies for controlling viral dissemination, by means of antiviral therapies, vaccines, or antioxidants, or by targeting the inhibition or activation of cell signaling pathways or metabolic pathways that are altered during infection. The rapid recovery of altered cellular homeostasis during viral infection is still a major challenge. Here, we review the strategies by which viruses evade the host's immune response and potential tools used to develop more specific antiviral therapies to cure, control, or prevent viral diseases.

The Key Role of Lysosomal Protease Cathepsins in Viral Infections

“…Indeed, cathepsins are known to degrade endocytosed and endogenous antigens to antigen peptides that bind to the major histocompatibility (MHC) class II molecules [ 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 119 ]. On the other hand, viruses exploit multiple mechanisms to evade immune recognition, including the manipulation of host antigen processing and presentation mechanisms [ 120 ]. This strategy to escape immune response enables the viruses to efficiently replicate in the infected cells.…”

“…In addition, some viruses have developed strategies to evade the host innate immune response that involve the activation of various pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including toll-like receptors (TLRs), among others, and the subsequent signaling resulting in the production of proinflammatory cytokines and/or the activation of programmed cell death [ 114 , 117 , 118 , 120 , 127 , 128 , 129 ]. For example, IAV is recognized by various PRRs, depending on the cellular compartment, the different types of cells, and the different stages of infection [ 130 ], and may also trigger PRR activation mechanisms to subvert the innate immune response [ 131 , 132 ].…”

Understanding Virus Structure and Dynamics through Molecular Simulations

“…Moreover, continued efforts are required due to cycles of viral mutations that enhance their evolutionary fitness, whether that be drug resistance 3 and/or vaccine escape. 4 Although individual viruses vary in terms of their size, compositional, and structural complexity, 1 as well as host cell targets, many share similar stages in their life cycles. 5 Viral particles contain the genomic material required for propagation; however, they must enter and use the host-cell machinery in order to produce additional viral progeny.…”

“…Viruses are abundant parasitic particles that produce unprecedented global health and economic threats. , A detailed understanding of the various aspects of their life cycle is essential to combat these threats, such as antivirals that adversely modify the viral life cycle to produce noninfectious progeny and vaccines that tune the immune system to fight infection. Moreover, continued efforts are required due to cycles of viral mutations that enhance their evolutionary fitness, whether that be drug resistance and/or vaccine escape …”

Identification and analysis of the interaction network of African swine fever virus D1133L with host proteins

“…However, D1133L's exact functions during ASFV infection have not been further explored. Considering that the interaction between virushost is critical for viruses to regulate host cell function and ensure virus efficient replication, revealing the interactions between D1133L and host proteins may help elucidate D1133L function (Weitzman and Fradet-Turcotte, 2018;Strumillo et al, 2021). As a high-throughput screening method, the combination of co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) and liquid chromatographymass spectrometry (LC-MS) has been widely used to study the interaction between virus and host proteins, such as the H5N1 influenza A virus (Wang Q. et al, 2019), Pseudorabies Virus (Rothan et al, 2019), and ASFV (Yang et al, 2021).…”