How Do Children Who Can't Hear Learn to Read an Alphabetic Script? A Review of the Literature on Reading and Deafness

Abstract

I review the literature on reading and deafness, focusing on the role of three broad factors in acquisition and skilled reading: the method of encoding print; language-specific knowledge (i.e., English); and general language knowledge. I explore the contribution of three communication systems to reading: spoken language, English-based sign, and American Sign Language. Their potential contribution to literacy is mediated by four parameters on which they differ: codability, structural isomorphism, accessibility, and processibility. Finally, I discuss the implications for additional research as well as for education.

Research Methods in Studying Reading and Literacy Development in Deaf Children Who Sign

“…This is unsurprising given the close relationship between reading and language in hearing children and the severe vocabulary delays exhibited by most deaf children (see Geers & Moog, 1989;Moores & Sweet, 1990;Kyle & Harris, 2006). Language delay has in fact been described as a hallmark of deafness (Musselman, 2000). In two longitudinal studies of reading development in deaf children from mixed language backgrounds (Kyle & Harris, 2010;, we found that vocabulary and speechreading were the strongest predictors of later reading ability.…”

“…Kyle and Harris (2010) reported a strong relationship between phonological awareness and reading in deaf children; however, it is important to note that the direction of this relationship was in fact from reading to phonological awareness. This finding is important as it suggests that deaf children's phonological awareness skills develop as a consequence of learning to read rather than being a precursor of reading ability as is typically found in hearing children (see also Musselman, 2000;Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001). Moreover, a very recent meta-analysis of the relationship between phonological skills and reading (Mayberry, del Giudice & Lieberman, 2011) concluded there is little consistent evidence of the role of phonology in deaf individuals' reading.…”

Exploring the Language and Literacy Outcomes of Pediatric Cochlear Implant Users

“…A review of the literature reveals that since the inception of standardized reading testing, children who are deaf have consistently achieved lower scores than their hearing peers (e.g., Allen, 1986; DiFrancesca, 1972;Furth, 1966;Goetzinger & Rousey, 1959;Kroese, et al, 1986;Musselman, 2000;Traxler, 2000;Trybus & Kachmer, 1977;Wrightstone, Aronow, & Moskowitz, 1963). Again, progress from year to year is reported to be slow, and studies report that average yearly improvement is at a rate of 1 to 6 mo (for every 12 mo of education).…”

“…The interdependence of spoken language, reading and writing skills is further illustrated in research conducted with deaf children (Lichtenstein, 1998;Musselman, 2000). Numerous studies with children and adolescents who are deaf show that developing reading proficiency has been a long-standing challenge for these people.…”

“…Preliminary writing data also revealed a relationship between language and writing skills. The authors found that children with lower language scores on standardized tests wrote shorter sentences, had less clausal density and made more grammatical errors.The interdependence of spoken language, reading and writing skills is further illustrated in research conducted with deaf children (Lichtenstein, 1998;Musselman, 2000). Numerous studies with children and adolescents who are deaf show that developing reading proficiency has been a long-standing challenge for these people.…”