How does Observational Learning affect the Behavior of Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders? A Review of Research

Abstract

An hypothesis supporting placement of students with emotional or behavioral disorders in regular classes and schools is that they will imitate the appropriate behavior of nondisabled peer models. We discuss findings of research on observational learning, including research regarding model characteristics and the observers' responses, vicarious reinforcement as implicit punishment, direction and duration of vicarious effects, vicarious effects on students with problem behavior, observers' other characteristics and vicarious effects, and aggression and vicarious processes. We conclude that placement in regular classes is not sufficient to ensure the imitation of appropriate peer models, that imitation of appropriate behavioral models is possible in special classes and schools, and that substantial changes in regular classes would be required to induce the desired imitation of nondisabled peers. Special education reformers suggest that all students with disabilities-including those with emotional or behavioral disorders-should be placed in their neighborhood schools and in regular classes(e.g., Gartner 8c Lipsky, 1989; Laski, 1991; S. Stainback & W. Stainback, 1980; W. Stainback & S. Stainback, 1991). Others have argued that regular class placement creates particular problems for many students with emotional or behavioral disorders and is neither always feasible nor always desirable (e.g., Braaten, Kauffman, Braaten, Polsgrove, 8c Nelson, 1988; Kauffman, 1993c; Kauffman, Lloyd, Baker, 8c Riedel, in press; Walker 8c Bullis, 1991). Research to date on the effects of placement has been inadequate and has yielded ambiguous findings along many dimensions (Martin, Hallenbeck, Kauffman, 8c Lloyd, 1995) or has suggested that including students with emotional or behavioral disorders in regular classes for purposes of improving their social skills or status is particularly difficult and not always successful (Clarke, O c 70 z > CD no m Q > im O c n o z < o rto ^O Z O ^£5 (continued) H X m o c 70 -o m n > rm D C n O z < O z o

Academic and Social Attainments of Children with Mental Retardation in General Education and Special Education Settings

“…All keywords were truncated to take into account grammatical differences (i.e., mental retard# to include mental retardation and mentally retarded). In addition, a careful examination was conducted of the references from the identified studies themselves and from review articles (Baker et al, 1994(Baker et al, -1995Carlberg & Kavale, 1980;Gottlieb, 1981;Gresham, 1982;Guralnick, 1999;Hallenbeck & Kauffman, 1995;Hunt & Goetz, 1997;Klassen, 1994;Leinhardt & Pallay, 1982;Lipsky & Gartner, 1995;Madden & Slavin, 1983;Sindelar & Deno, 1978 Butera, & Lesar, 1991). In addition, studies were excluded in which nondisabled students were asked about their perceptions of &dquo;children with disabilities&dquo; in general (i.e., Helmstetter, Peck, & Giangreco, 1994;Schnorr, 1990).…”

“…In summary then, these reviews and others have ex-amined younger children in preschool programs (Gresham, 1982;Guralnick, 1999), children with a variety of disabilities (Gresham, 1982;Hallenbeck & Kauffman, 1995), and only those in a particular educational setting (Hunt & Goetz, 1997). These diverse examinations and the numerous methodological issues in the studies as identified by the reviewers (Gottlieb, 1981;Gresham & MacMillan, 1997) We note Leinhardt and Pallay's (1982) (Buysse & Bailey, 1993;Slavin, 1984).…”

How We Prevent the Prevention of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

“…The power of models is probably often overestimated or misunderstood (Hallenbeck & Kauffman, 1995). However, to the extent that our professional peers interfere in prevention and fail to embrace preventive acts, these models probably contribute to our failure to practice prevention.…”

Eight Myths About Special Education

“…Moreover, for models to be effective, the observers must see themselves as being somewhat like the models-to identify with them. Finally, students may learn from inappropriate as well as appropriate models, and both desirable and undesirable models are found in nearly every classroom, both general and special education( see Hallenbeck & Kauffman, 1995). Proponents of including all students in general education classrooms seem to assume not only that incidental observational learning will take place but also that what is learned will be positive.…”