Chronic pain was traditionally defi ned by the length of time that pain persists [ 54 ] but more recent conceptualizations have introduced a more nuanced approach [ 85 ]. The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) currently defi nes chronic pain variously as " pain without apparent biological value ", " that has persisted beyond the normal tissue healing time … as determined by common medical experience ", and/or as " a persistent pain that is not amenable, as a rule, to treatments based upon specifi c remedies " [ 85 ]. Moreover, some chronic pain syndromes, such as rheumatoid arthritis, will likely never heal and others, such as migraine headaches, remit (i.e., heal) and then recur [ 85 ]. Notwithstanding the challenges associated with defi ning chronic pain and the problems with a solely, time-based defi nition, for research purposes, chronic non-malignant pain is typically defi ned as pain that persists for longer than 3 or 6 months [ 58 , 59 , 74 , 126 ].Recent epidemiologic studies reveal considerable variability in prevalence estimates for chronic pain (using a liberal time frame of 3 months or longer). These studies show that between 11.5 and 55 % of the population worldwide report chronic