Human exposure assessment of organophosphate esters (OPEs) through dust ingestion and dermal absorption in Colombian cities

Abstract

Concentrations of 19 organophosphate esters (OPEs) were determined in dust samples collected from house and car indoor microenvironments in three Colombian cities. ∑OPE concentrations ranged from 1.31 to 599 μg/g. Mean concentrations of dust homes were 82.6, 48.3, and 46.7 μg/g for Cartagena, Bogotá, and Medellín, respectively. The pollution inside cars was somewhat higher than in houses, with a mean value of 231 μg/g. Sixteen compounds were detected, being TPHP, DCP, TEP, and TCEP the most frequently detected. As for OPEs with higher levels in houses, we found (mean ± SD) 35.2 ± 37.1 μg/g for TDCIPP in Cartagena, 35.6 ± 80.2 μg/g for TPHP in Cartagena, 15.9 ± 31.4 μg/g for DCP in Cartagena, 35.7 ± 19.1 μg/g for TBOEP in Bogotá, 15.7 ± 14.8 μg/g for 4IPPDPP in Medellín, and 17.5 ± 22.9 μg/g for TCEP in Cartagena, while the highest OPE value found in cars was 176 ± 144 μg/g for TDCIPP. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of OPEs through dust ingestion ranged from 0.001 ng/kg bw/day for adults to 110 ng/kg bw/day for toddlers, while dermal absorption ranged from 0.02 ng/kg bw/day for adults to 42.7 ng/kg bw/day for infants. Overall, the EDIs of dust ingestion were three times greater than those of dust dermal absorption. The estimated EDIs were several orders of magnitude below the corresponding reference doses. However, the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for TCEP ranged from 1.1 × 10-5 for infants in Bogotá to 4.3 × 10-4 for adults in Cartagena, while ILCR for TEHP ranged from 8.8 × 10-7 for infants in Bogotá to 1.1 × 10-5 for adults in Bogotá. These estimated ILCRs were higher than the safe limit value of 1 × 10-6 and showed that these populations are exposed to moderate cancer risk.

Assessment of Daily Exposure to Organophosphate Esters through PM2.5 Inhalation, Dust Ingestion, and Dermal Contact

“…Extracts were evaporated using a gentle nitrogen stream up to a volume around 2 mL and then transferred to a 2 mL chromatography vial. Extracts were finally evaporated to incipient dryness and immediately reconstituted with 500 μL of methanol …”

“…Extracts were finally evaporated to incipient dryness and immediately reconstituted with 500 μL of methanol. 11 …”

“…The presence of OPEs in the environment was first reported by Sheldon and Hites (1978), who detected tributyl phosphate (TBP), tri­(2-butoxyethyl)­phosphate (TBOEP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) in freshwater samples from a river. By now, we know that OPEs are present across the environmental sampling spectrum, encompassing, for example, indoor air, − dust, , water, sediments, and biota, , in a wide range of concentrations going from parts-per-trillion (ppt) or below, up to hundreds of parts-per-million (ppm) …”

Combined Effects of Fronts, Upwelling and the Biological Pump on Organophosphate Esters in the Changjiang (Yangtze) River Estuary During Summer

“…This has caused the global OPE distribution in a variety of environmental compartments including air, seawater and sediment, generally with 2–3 orders of magnitude higher concentrations than BFRs and other legacy Persistent Organic Pollutants (Cao et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017; Schmidt et al., 2019; Wolschke et al., 2018). Moreover, some OPEs, such as tris (2‐chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), showed potential for carcinogenic and neurotoxic effects on organisms (Olivero‐Verbel et al., 2022). However, there is currently no international regulation to address the increasing environmental pressure resulting from OPEs' usage and emissions.…”

“…for carcinogenic and neurotoxic effects on organisms (Olivero-Verbel et al, 2022). However, there is currently no international regulation to address the increasing environmental pressure resulting from OPEs' usage and emissions.…”