Human Milk Concentrations of Minerals, Essential and Toxic Trace Elements and Association with Selective Medical, Social, Demographic and Environmental Factors

Abstract

This study aims to quantify concentrations of minerals and trace elements in human milk (HM) and infant formula (IF) and evaluate associations with medical, social, environmental, and demographic variables. A prospective, case series study of 170 nursing mothers was made. HM samples were obtained from full-term (colostrum, intermediate and mature HM) and preterm (mature HM) mothers. Variables of interest were assessed by a questionnaire. For comparison, IF samples (n = 30) were analyzed in a cross-sectional study. Concentrations of 35 minerals, essential and toxic trace elements were quantified, 5 for the first time: thallium in HM and IF; strontium in preterm HM; and gallium, lithium and uranium in IF. In preterm and full-term HM, levels of selenium (p < 0.001) were significantly lower than recommended and were associated with low birth weight (p < 0.002). Cesium and strontium concentrations were significantly higher than recommended (p < 0.001). Associations were observed between arsenic and residence in an urban area (p = 0.013), and between lead and smoking (p = 0.024) and well-water consumption (p = 0.046). In IF, aluminum, vanadium, and uranium levels were higher than in HM (p < 0.001); uranium, quantified for the first time, was 100 times higher in all types of IF than in HM. Our results indicate that concentrations of most trace elements were within internationally accepted ranges for HM and IF. However, preterm infants are at increased risk of nutritional deficiencies and toxicity. IF manufacturers should reduce the content of toxic trace elements.

Metallomic and Untargeted Metabolomic Signatures of Human Milk from SARS‐CoV‐2 Positive Mothers

“…Tl levels have been detected in all the samples at very low concentrations, this toxic has been also found naturally in the environment, and therefore can contaminate water and food as well as it was reported in Spanish HM in higher concentrations than our study. [15] In agreement with other studies, the presence of As has been associated to residence in an urban area (higher availability of As in food, water, and air caused by industrial activities). The change of toxic elements concentrations in HM associated with COVID-19, maybe explained by the homeostatic equilibria with other essential elements that could interact with them, as previously reported in the literature.…”

“…However, no differences were observed depending on COVID-19 symptomatology (asymptomatic vs symptomatic). Furthermore, we also identified toxic elements (Ni, V, Al, Tl, and As) in HM samples as reported by other studies [15,35] and, also, we reported their higher presence for first time in COVID-19 mothers. Higher levels of Tl (1.4-fold, p = 0.008) and As (1.3-fold, p = 0.031) were identified in COVID-19 mothers compared to prepandemic controls.…”

“…[ 8 ] Higher serum Se levels have been found in surviving COVID‐19 patients compared to those reported in nonsurviving patients. [ 9 , 10 , 11 ] Limited evidence has been reported on elements transfer during breastfeeding [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ] and the impact of maternal SARS‐CoV‐2 infection on HM elemental and metabolomic profiles are uncovered.…”

Growth after implementing a donor breast milk program in neonates <33 weeks gestational age or birthweight <1500 grams: Retrospective cohort study

“…Zn concentration in pooled DBM is about half that in preterm milk in the US [ 21 ], whereas only minimal differences in concentrations of other trace elements have been reported between term and preterm human milk [ 34 ]. In order to verify that Zn levels in DBM were as low as expected from the literature [ 12 , 13 , 21 ], Zn concentration was measured in a convenience sample ( n = 11 separate aliquots) of pooled DBM collected soon after implementing the DBM program.…”

Human health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in the breast milk consumed by infants in Western Iran

“…However, milk can transfer toxic elements from the mother to the baby via breastfeeding. The presence of these toxins does not necessarily cause health hazards in the infant, but since these hazards are biologically probable, they should be monitored 3 . The first stage of transmission of contaminants to the baby begins from the time of placement in the mother's womb and continues until breastfeeding 4 .…”