Humanitarians at sea: Selective emulation across migrant rescue NGOs in the Mediterranean sea

Abstract

Between 2014 and 2017, no less than 10 different non-governmental organizations (NGOs) conducted maritime Search and Rescue (SAR) operations off the coast of Libya. By rescuing over 100,000 migrants in three years, these NGOs became the largest provider of SAR in the Mediterranean. The theory of institutionalism suggests that organizations conducting similar activities are likely to converge in a process of mimetic isomorphism, deliberately imitating one another to increase their effectiveness and cope with uncertainty. These 10 SAR NGOs, however, developed two different rescue models: While some rescued migrants and disembarked them in Italian ports, others only simply assisted those in distress until the arrival of another ship transporting them to land. They also cooperated with Italian and European authorities to different degrees. Why did SAR NGOs imitated many elements of existing nongovernmental rescue models, but discarded some others? This article argues that differences in material capabilities and organizational role conceptions are crucial to explain why newer SAR NGOs have imitated most but not all of their predecessors' policies, engaging in a process of "selective emulation." KEYWORDS Search and rescue; NGOs; maritime security; humanitarianism; selective emulation; isomorphism Since 2012, the large number of migrants dying at sea while trying to reach Italy has turned the Southern Mediterranean sea into the deadliest border worldwide (International Organization for Migration, 2016; UNHCR, 2016). Several non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have attempted to mitigate this humanitarian emergency by conducting maritime search and rescue (SAR) operations. Between 2014 and August 2017, no less than 10 NGOs conducted SAR missions off the coast of Libya, providing a crucial contribution to rescuing migrants at sea.

From “Angels” to “Vice Smugglers”: the Criminalization of Sea Rescue NGOs in Italy

“…Cultural differences between NGOs have also translated into different conceptions of humanitarian work. Most notably, organizations with a long history of operating in conflict environments like MSF developed a stricter interpretation of the principles of neutrality and independence that underlie humanitarian action (Cusumano 2019c).…”

“…Despite some organizations' stronger commitment to neutrality and independence, all NGOs cooperated effectively with the Italian MRCC, as repeatedly acknowledged by Italian Coast Guard and Navy officers (Cuttitta 2020;Cusumano 2019c). In fact, the SAR operations conducted by NGOs between 2014 and 2017 were all coordinated and for the most part initiated by the Italian MRCC, which gathered distress calls and urged ships in the vicinity to conduct rescue operations in accordance with the international law of the sea.…”

“…It was only in 2018-when the Italian government stopped accepting responsibility for SAR operations off the coast of Libya and began denying NGOs entry to its ports-that cooperation between NGOs and the MRCC faltered (Cuttitta 2020). Before then, NGOs were seen by the Italian MRCC as a multiplier of European rescue capabilities, stretched thin by the end of operation Mare Nostrum (Cusumano 2019c). Indeed, as showed by Fig.…”

Copying in EU security and defence policies: the case of EUNAVFOR MED Operation Sophia

“…Existing political debate in Italy had already linked migration and security issues long before the emergence of the critical juncture at the EU level around the migration crisis (Angelescu 2008, Cusumano 2019a, 2019b, Panebianco 2016. The Italian government quickly implemented Operation Mare Nostrum in October 2013 after a separate large loss of life near Lampedusa.…”

The Role of NGOs in Search and Rescue Operations in the Context of the European Union Migration Crisis

“…Паттисон, поисково-спасательные операции, которые начали проводить неправительственные организации, прикрыли брешь в миграционной политике ЕС [3]. Начиная с 2014 г. более 10 НПО начали морские поисково-спасательные операции в Средиземном море [15].…”