Hybrid Battery/Lithium-Ion Capacitor Energy Storage System for a Pure Electric Bus for an Urban Transportation Application

Abstract

Public transportation based on electric vehicles has attracted significant attention in recent years due to the lower overall emissions it generates. However, there are some barriers to further development and commercialization. Fewer charging facilities in comparison to gas stations, limited battery lifetime, and extra costs associated with its replacement present some barriers to achieve better acceptance. A practical solution to improve the battery lifetime and driving range is to eliminate the large-magnitude pulse current flow from and to the battery during acceleration and deceleration. Hybrid energy storage systems which combine high-power (HP) and high-energy (HE) storage units can be used for this purpose. Lithium-ion capacitors (LiC) can be used as a HP storage unit, which is similar to a supercapacitor cell but with a higher rate capability, a higher energy density, and better cyclability. In this design, the LiC can provide the excess power required while the battery fails to do so. Moreover, hybridization enables a downsizing of the overall energy storage system and decreases the total cost as a consequence of lifetime, performance, and efficiency improvement. The aim of this paper is to investigate the effectiveness of the hybrid energy storage system in protecting the battery from damage due to the high-power rates during charging and discharging. The procedure followed and presented in this paper demonstrates the good performance of the evaluated hybrid storage system to reduce the negative consequences of the power peaks associated with urban driving cycles and its ability to improve the lifespan by 16%.

Special Issue “Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)”

“…Moreover, hybridization enables a downsizing of the overall energy storage system and decreases the total cost as a consequence of lifetime, performance, and efficiency improvement. The procedure followed and presented in this paper demonstrates the good performance of the evaluated hybrid storage system in reducing the negative consequences of the power peaks associated with urban driving cycles and its ability to improve the lifespan by 16% [12].…”

“…The aim of this paper of Mahdi Soltani et al [12] is to investigate the effectiveness of a hybrid energy storage system in heavy duty applications, in protecting the battery from damage due to the high-power rates during charging and discharging. Public transportation based on electric vehicles has attracted significant attention in recent years due to its lower overall emissions.…”

Lithium-Ion Capacitor Safety Testing for Commercial Application

“…σ o and T o are the electrical conductivity and the reference temperature. The heat generation inside a lithium-ion cell is produced majorly from electrochemical operation, joule heating, entropy change and heat transferred to ambient conditions by convection [37][38][39][40][41][42]. The heat can be estimated based on the thermodynamic energy balance generally expressed in Equation 8:…”

Analysis of the Electric Bus Autonomy Depending on the Atmospheric Conditions

“…LTO batteries have the following advantages: operating safety, longevity, performance, and power density, but have a low energy density and are expensive [36]. The virtual model for the basic cell of the battery pack is shown in Figure 3, and, based on this model, the electrical equations that describe the characteristics of cells, modules, and of the battery packs were formulated [34,[37][38][39][40][41][42]. The voltage at the terminals of a cell (Ucell) is calculated with the following equation [38]: The virtual model for the basic cell of the battery pack is shown in Figure 3, and, based on this model, the electrical equations that describe the characteristics of cells, modules, and of the battery packs were formulated [34,[37][38][39][40][41][42].…”