Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering: Addressing Key Design Needs Toward Clinical Translation

Abstract

Graphical Abstract

Closed-loop recycling of microparticle-based polymers

“…[21][22][23][24][25] Moreover, other types of tough films that consist of microparticles cross-linked by rotaxanes 16 can also be disassembled into single particles by good solvents (Fig. S5 †), suggesting that it is feasible to expect that this microparticle-based recycling strategy can be improved and extended to other functional polymers, including hard microparticles and soft microgels, [33][34][35][36][37][38][39] considering that living organs are mechanically stable even though they are composed of organized ultrasoft microparticles (cells).…”

Whole-Heart Tissue Engineering and Cardiac Patches: Challenges and Promises

“…Moreover, cell migration and proliferation can be affected by the mismatching between the pore size of the conventional hydrogel and the dimensions of cells [38]. Poor cell adhesion due to the inherent cell repellency of most hydrogels, such as poly (ethylene glycol) or zwitterionic hydrogels, can limit the use of hydrogels as functional engineered tissues [39]. The lower modulus of macroporous hydrogels, in comparison with natural tissues, can have an impact on CM maturation due to their inherent softness and high porosity [40].…”

The importance of structure property relationship for the designing of biomaterials using liquid crystal elastomers

“…Morphological features of the scaffolds must be tunable to control and affect cell adhesion features such as heterogeneity, (an)isotropy, as well as geometrical features of the porous architecture including pore size and inter-connectivity. 3,55,56 When developing new biomaterials, or as in this case, engineering LCEs, as scaffolds for TE and/or biomedical applications, they must have a well-defined porosity and surface properties. These aspects provide support for cell adherence, growth, and mass transport between of the scaffold pores, under physiological conditions, to promote healthy cellular growth.…”

“…Twodimensional (2D) cell culture has played an important role within biomedical and biological research to help understand biological events from cell metabolic pathways to the formation of tissue as part of tissue engineering (TE). TE is the interdisciplinary field that combines the core values of biology and engineering with the purpose of developing close to ideal alternatives to replace or regenerate damaged or diseased tissue, 2,3 and has made strides into moving towards three-dimensional (3D) systems away from static monolayer cell growth observed in 2D traditional cell culture. Despite the overall success creating 3D systems using natural and synthetic polymeric materials, ceramics, and composites, 4 most 3D materials still present some restrictions, mostly when providing effective support for cell populations while at the same time conferring sufficient mechanical properties to tissues.…”