Clostridioides difficile infection: history, epidemiology, risk factors, prevention, clinical manifestations, treatment, and future options

Abstract

SUMMARY Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is one of the major issues in nosocomial infections. This bacterium is constantly evolving and poses complex challenges for clinicians, often encountered in real-life scenarios. In the face of CDI, we are increasingly equipped with new therapeutic strategies, such as monoclonal antibodies and live biotherapeutic products, which need to be thoroughly understood to fully harness their benefits. Moreover, interesting options are currently under study for the future, including bacteriophages, vaccines, and antibiotic inhibitors. Surveillance and prevention strategies continue to play a pivotal role in limiting the spread of the infection. In this review, we aim to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of epidemiological aspects, predisposing factors, clinical manifestations, diagnostic tools, and current and future prophylactic and therapeutic options for C. difficile infection.

Retrospective Analysis of Clostridioides difficile Infection Rates and Outcomes in Hospitalized Patients during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Unicenter Study in Reus, Spain

“…Theoretically, this heightened emphasis on prevention practices may have decreased the incidence of CDI and other hospital-acquired infections. Conversely, increased use of antibiotics to treat pneumonia and respiratory conditions associated with the virus may have produced the opposite effect [6,[10][11][12]. The reported findings are inconclusive, with the majority indicating either no impact or a decrease in CDI rates during the initial wave of COVID-19 [13][14][15][16][17][18][19].…”

Usefulness of Capillary Gel Electrophoresis-Based PCR for Detection of Clostridioides difficile Strains with Hypervirulent Ribotypes

“…Clostridioides difficile bacteria are a Gram-positive, toxin-and spore-producing obligate anaerobes with a broad spectrum of distribution in the environment [21]. The microorganism was first isolated in the 1930s from the feces of healthy infants and has since been Gels 2024, 10, 343 2 of 16 classified as a part of the natural human microbiota.…”

“…The microorganism was first isolated in the 1930s from the feces of healthy infants and has since been Gels 2024, 10, 343 2 of 16 classified as a part of the natural human microbiota. The association of C. difficile with post-antibiotic diseases was not discovered until the 1970s [21].…”

“…This bacterium is the causative agent of healthcare-associated diarrhea. It typically arises from prolonged therapy with clindamycin, third-and fourth-generation cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, and proton pump inhibitors [21,22]. Additional factors contributing to the development of the disease include advanced age, compromised immunity, and hospitalization [23,24].…”