I. The Development of Executive Function

Zelazo, Philip David; Müller, Ulrich; Frye, Douglas; Marcovitch, Stuart

doi:10.1111/j.0037-976x.2003.00261.x

Cited by 740 publications

(698 citation statements)

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“…Furthermore, our results may shed light on the relation between prefrontal activation and perseverative behaviors. Developmental psychologists suggest that functional development of the prefrontal cortex may help young children to improve their perseverative behaviors (12,13). This speculation is based on the results of the WCST in patients with prefrontal damage (2-4).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In the postswitch phase, children are asked to sort the cards according to a second rule (e.g., shape). Typically, 3-year-old children perseverate to the first rule, whereas 4-and 5-year-old children do not (12)(13)(14)(15). The perseverative errors in 3-year-old children are apparently similar to those in patients with prefrontal damage.…”

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confidence: 82%

“…The perseverative errors in 3-year-old children are apparently similar to those in patients with prefrontal damage. Therefore, developmental psychologists assume that maturation of the lateral prefrontal cortex may play an essential role in the development of cognitive shifting (12,13). Extensive behavioral research has supported the assumption.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Neural origin of cognitive shifting in young children

Moriguchi

Hiraki

2009

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

167

192

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Cognitive shifting is the ability to adapt to changes in the environment. Extensive research has revealed that the prefrontal cortex plays an important role in cognitive shifting. Adult neuroimaging studies have shown that the inferior prefrontal cortex is activated during cognitive shifting tasks. Developmental studies have shown that cognitive shifting changes significantly during preschool years. It is known that 3-year-old children often perseverate to previous mental sets, whereas 5-year-old children do not. Developmental psychologists assume that maturation of the prefrontal cortex plays an essential role in the development of shifting; however, direct supporting evidence is lacking. We used near-infrared spectroscopy and showed that inferior prefrontal activation is associated with successful shifting in young children. We also showed that even preschool children display adult-like inferior prefrontal activation during a simple cognitive shifting task. This report demonstrates the neural origins of cognitive shifting in young children. These results have the potential to contribute to our understanding of cognitive and brain development in both typically and atypically developed children.cognitive development ͉ inferior prefrontal cortex ͉ near-infrared spectroscopy ͉ preschool children ͉ executive function

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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confidence: 82%

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Neural origin of cognitive shifting in young children

Moriguchi

Hiraki

2009

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

167

192

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“…Dominant theories of cognitive control suggest that this flexibility is enabled by the proactive regulation of behavior through sustained inhibition of inappropriate thoughts and actions (1,2), the active biasing of task-relevant thoughts (3)(4)(5)(6), or construction of rule-like representations (7)(8).…”

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confidence: 99%

“…Theories of the developmental origins of cognitive control converge in positing that children engage these same proactive processes, but in a weaker form, with less strength or stability (9,10), less resistance toward habitual responses (1, 2), or degraded complexity (8,11). For example, according to one influential theory (8), developmental change in cognitive control is driven by ''age-related improvements in the complexity and scope of children's intentional, top-down processes.''…”

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confidence: 99%

Pupillometric and behavioral markers of a developmental shift in the temporal dynamics of cognitive control

Chatham

Frank²,

Munakata³

2009

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

276

292

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The capacity to anticipate and prepare for future events is thought to be critical for cognitive control. Dominant accounts of cognitive control treat the developing system as merely a weaker version of the adult system, progressively strengthening over time. Using the AX Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT) in combination with high-resolution pupillometry, we find that whereas 8-year-old children resemble adults in their proactive use of cognitive control, 3.5-year-old children exhibit a qualitatively different, reactive form of cognitive control, responding to events only as they unfold and retrieving information from memory as needed in the moment. These results demonstrate the need to reconsider the origins of cognitive control and the basis for children's behaviors across domains.cognitive development ͉ context processing ͉ pupillometry ͉ reactive control ͉ proactive control

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Association of Neonatal Glycemia With Neurodevelopmental Outcomes at 4.5 Years

et al. 2017

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for the Children With Hypoglycemia and Their Later Development (CHYLD) Study Team IMPORTANCE Hypoglycemia is common during neonatal transition and may cause permanent neurological impairment, but optimal intervention thresholds are unknown.OBJECTIVE To test the hypothesis that neurodevelopment at 4.5 years is related to the severity and frequency of neonatal hypoglycemia. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTSThe Children With Hypoglycemia and Their Later Development (CHYLD) Study is a prospective cohort investigation of moderate to late preterm and term infants born at risk of hypoglycemia. Clinicians were masked to neonatal interstitial glucose concentrations; outcome assessors were masked to neonatal glycemic status. The setting was a regional perinatal center in Hamilton, New Zealand. The study was conducted from December 2006 to November 2010. The dates of the follow-up were September 2011 to June 2015. Participants were 614 neonates born from 32 weeks' gestation with at least 1 risk factor for hypoglycemia, including diabetic mother, preterm, small, large, or acute illness. Blood and masked interstitial glucose concentrations were measured for up to 7 days after birth. Infants with hypoglycemia (whole-blood glucose concentration <47 mg/dL) were treated to maintain blood glucose concentration of at least 47 mg/dL. EXPOSURES Neonatal hypoglycemic episode, defined as at least 1 consecutive blood glucose concentration less than 47 mg/dL, a severe episode (<36 mg/dL), or recurrent (Ն3 episodes). An interstitial episode was defined as an interstitial glucose concentration less than 47 mg/dL for at least 10 minutes. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURESCognitive function, executive function, visual function, and motor function were assessed at 4.5 years. The primary outcome was neurosensory impairment, defined as poor performance in one or more domains. RESULTSIn total, 477 of 604 eligible children (79.0%) were assessed. Their mean (SD) age at the time of assessment was 4.5 (0.1) years, and 228 (47.8%) were female. Those exposed to neonatal hypoglycemia (280 [58.7%]) did not have increased risk of neurosensory impairment (risk difference [RD], 0.01; 95% CI, −0.07 to 0.10 and risk ratio [RR], 0.96; 95% CI, 0.77 to 1.21). However, hypoglycemia was associated with increased risk of low executive function (RD, 0.05; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.10 and RR, 2.32; 95% CI, 1.17 to 4.59) and visual motor function (RD, 0.03; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.06 and RR, 3.67; 95% CI, 1.15 to 11.69), with highest risk in children exposed to severe, recurrent, or clinically undetected (interstitial episodes only) hypoglycemia.CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Neonatal hypoglycemia was not associated with increased risk of combined neurosensory impairment at 4.5 years but was associated with a dose-dependent increased risk of poor executive function and visual motor function, even if not detected clinically, and may thus influence later learning. Randomized trials are needed to determine optimal screening and intervention thresholds based on assessment of neurodevelopment at le...

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I. The Development of Executive Function

Cited by 740 publications

References 0 publications

Neural origin of cognitive shifting in young children

Neural origin of cognitive shifting in young children

Pupillometric and behavioral markers of a developmental shift in the temporal dynamics of cognitive control

Association of Neonatal Glycemia With Neurodevelopmental Outcomes at 4.5 Years

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