Identification of plant cells in black pigments of prehistoric Spanish Levantine rock art by means of a multi-analytical approach. A new method for social identity materialization using chaîne opératoire

Abstract

We present a new multi-analytical approach to the characterization of black pigments in Spanish Levantine rock art. This new protocol seeks to identify the raw materials that were used, as well as reconstruct the different technical gestures and decision-making processes involved in the obtaining of these black pigments. For the first of these goals, the pictorial matter of the black figurative motifs documented at the Les Dogues rock art shelter (Ares del Maestre, Castellón, Spain) was characterized through the combination of physicochemical and archeobotanical analyses. During the first stage of our research protocol, in situ and non-destructive analyses were carried out by means of portable Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF); during the second stage, samples were analyzed by Optical Microscopy (OM), Raman spectroscopy, and Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). Two major conclusions have been drawn from these analyses: first, charred plant matter has been identified as a main component of these prehistoric black pigments; and second, angiosperm and conifer charcoal was a primary raw material for pigment production, identified by means of the archaeobotanical study of plant cells. For the second goal, black charcoal pigments were replicated in the laboratory by using different raw materials and binders and by reproducing two main chaînes opératoires. The comparative study of the structure and preservation of plant tissues of both prehistoric and experimental pigments by means of SEM-EDX underlines both a complex preparation process and the use of likely pigment recipes, mixing raw material with fatty or oily binders. Finally, the formal and stylistic analysis of the motifs portrayed at Les Dogues allowed us to explore the relationship between identified stylistic phases and black charcoal pigment use, raising new archaeological questions concerning the acquisition of know-how and the transfer of traditionally learned chaînes opératoires in Spanish Levantine rock art.

Lightfastness assessment of Levantine rock art by means of microfading spectrometry

“…Therefore, it can be considered a useful technique for studying the surface characteristics and the radiation behavior of the features. In recent years, the study of pigments has become more relevant since it is possible to know about the chemical composition, the origin of materials, the preparation of mixtures, and the photostability of the pigments . Thanks to the research of some authors on the characterization of Levantine rock art pigments today, we know more about the pigments used for this type of paintings.…”

“…Firstly, black pigment of vegetable origin is not a common practice in Spanish Levantine rock art sites. 8,42 Secondly, red pigments are Febased, and it is known that these pigments prevail throughout the rock art territory. 8 Finally, Spanish Levantine rock art sites consist of layers of organic and inorganic paintings in calcareous rock substrates, and layers of calcium salts such as CaSO 4 and CaCO 3 cover the surface of the rock substrates.…”

“…In recent years, the study of pigments has become more relevant since it is possible to know about the chemical composition, the origin of materials, the preparation of mixtures, and the photostability of the pigments. 8,23,[30][31][32] Thanks to the research of some authors on the characterization of Levantine rock art pigments today, we know more about the pigments used for this type of paintings. However, it is not known how the color will change over time.…”

Proteomic and metagenomic insights into prehistoric Spanish Levantine Rock Art

“…This approach is justified by the assumption that Levantine pigments were simple solutions/suspensions rather than complex mixtures, since components such as proteins or lipids, which could act as binders in mixtures, had not been detected at that point. Recently, we developed a new protocol including archaeobotanical microanalysis and experimental archaeology that enabled us to detect binders used to prepare Levantine charcoal pigments; however, we were unsuccessful in identifying them physico-chemically by in situ energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDXRF) and Raman spectroscopy 6 .…”

Looking for Paint Mixtures to Glimpse Pictorial Techniques: A Micro -Stratigraphic Physicochemical Approach to the Rock Art From the Oyola’s Caves (Argentina)

“…These analyses could allow us to discern some aspects about the whole process of painting production, from obtaining the raw materials to the nal gure, showing the different steps, elections and actors involved in the process. To the best of our knowledge, except for some valuable works [29,[59][60][61], the use of archaeometric studies to explore similar topics have been more exploited in other disciplines different to archaeology, such as art history and heritage science [56,[62][63][64]. Moreover, new concepts based on technical art studies can be incorporated by the archaeometry eld to reinterpret the technical execution of rock art.…”