Identifying key features of early stressful experiences that produce stress vulnerability and resilience in primates

Abstract

This article examines the complex role of early stressful experiences in producing both vulnerability and resilience to later stress-related psychopathology in a variety of primate models of human development. Two types of models are reviewed: Parental Separation Models (e.g., isolate-rearing, peer-rearing, parental separations, and stress inoculation) and Maternal Behavior Models (e.g., foraging demands, variation in maternal style, and maternal abuse). Based on empirical evidence, it is argued that early life stress exposure does not increase adult vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology as a linear function, as is generally believed, but instead reflects a quadratic function. Features of early stress exposure including the type, duration, frequency, ecological validity, sensory modality, and developmental timing, within and between species, are identified to better understand how early stressful experiences alter neurobiological systems to produce such diverse developmental outcomes. This article concludes by identifying gaps in our current knowledge, providing directions for future research, and discussing the translational implications of these primate models for human development and psychopathology.

Paternal care in a fish: epigenetics and fitness enhancing effects on offspring anxiety

“…Furthermore, paternal care alters offspring whole brain Dnmt3a expression, which has the potential to modify the expression of many genes in offspring, some of which might influence both their anxiety and future parental care [4]. The challenge of future work is to determine the extent to which these paternal effects can be transmitted to future generations, for example by altering offspring's paternal care [13], the mechanisms underlying such transgenerational plasticity, and whether similar behavioural matching between parents and offspring can help explain the differential sensitivity to environmental influences evident among individuals of so many species, including humans [1,3,8].…”

“…In addition to the obvious influence of parental provisioning on offspring size and morphological traits, parental care can also exert substantial influence on offspring behavioural traits [1][2][3][4]. For example in rodents and non-human primates, offspring receiving low levels of parental care, or deprived of it altogether, develop more reactive stress response systems, thereby reducing their ability to cope with stressors and leading to increased anxiety [2,3,5,6]. This suggests that receiving adequate parental care is an important part of offspring development and its removal has long-lasting consequences for how offspring react to stressors.…”

Interspecific interactions and welfare implications in mixed species communities of capuchin (Sapajus apella) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) over 3 years

“…However, social enrichment is potentially the most important aspect for social species. Appropriate early social rearing is critical for developing skills and resilience in primates (Parker and Maestripieri, 2011). Interactions such as play and allogrooming contribute to positive emotions and hence improved welfare (Joint Working Group on Refinement, 2009).…”

Observational field studies reveal wild birds responding to early-life stresses with resilience, plasticity, and intergenerational effects

“…The need to base experimental challenges on known characteristics of natural stresses, including their magnitude, frequency, timing, duration, and stochasticity, to elucidate adaptiveness of plastic developmental responses is increasingly recognized by students of birds and other taxa (e.g., Parker and Maestripieri 2011). Combinations of stresses, such as habitat change and climate change, are increasingly recognized as important, and details of how stresses are experienced can be critical.…”