Identity and COVID-19 in Canada: Gender, ethnicity, and minority status

Abstract

Background During the COVID-19 pandemic, growing evidence from the United States, the United Kingdom, and China has demonstrated the unequal social and economic burden of this health crisis. Yet, in Canada, studies assessing the socioeconomic and demographic determinants of COVID-19, and how these determinants vary by gender and ethnic minority status, remain scarce. As new strains of COVID-19 emerge, it is important to understand the disparities to be able to initiate policies and interventions that target and prioritise the most at-risk sub-populations. Aim The objective of this study is to assess the socioeconomic and demographic factors associated with COVID-19-related symptoms in Canada, and how these determinants vary by identity factors including gender and visible minority status. Methods We implemented an online survey and collected a nationally representative sample of 2,829 individual responses. The original data collected via the SurveyMonkey platform were analysed using a cross-sectional study. The outcome variables were COVID-19-related symptoms among respondents and their household members. The exposure variables were socioeconomic and demographic factors including gender and ethnicity as well as age, province, minority status, level of education, total annual income in 2019, and number of household members. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to test the associations. The results were presented as adjusted odds ratios (aORs) at p < 0.05 and a 95% confidence interval. Results We found that the odds of having COVID-19-related symptoms were higher among respondents who belong to mixed race [aOR = 2.77; CI = 1.18–6.48] and among those who lived in provinces other than Ontario and Quebec [aOR = 1.88; CI = 1.08–3.28]. There were no significant differences in COVID-19 symptoms between males and females, however, we did find a significant association between the province, ethnicity, and reported COVID-19 symptoms for female respondents but not for males. The likelihood of having COVID-19-related symptoms was also lower among respondents whose total income was $100,000 or more in 2019 [aOR = 0.18; CI = 0.07–0.45], and among those aged 45–64 [aOR = 0.63; CI = 0.41–0.98] and 65–84 [aOR = 0.42; CI = 0.28–0.64]. These latter associations were stronger among non-visible minorities. Among visible minorities, being black or of the mixed race and living in Alberta were associated with higher odds of COVID-19-related symptoms. Conclusion We conclude that ethnicity, age, total income in 2019, and province were significantly associated with experiencing COVID-19 symptoms in Canada. The significance of these determinants varied by gender and minority status. Considering our findings, it will be prudent to have COVID-19 mitigation strategies including screening, testing, and other prevention policies targeted toward the vulnerable populations. These strategies should also be designed to be specific to each gender category and ethnic group, and to account for minority status.

Prevalence and Predictors of Long COVID in Patients Accessing a National Digital Mental Health Service

“…Although speculative, this combination of income- and employment-related factors is likely to represent an underlying association between people’s occupational status and susceptibility to long COVID. For example, people working in front-line or essential jobs are more likely to be exposed to COVID-19, and therefore, be at greater risk of developing long COVID [ 5 ], and some research has shown that an increase in income level is significantly associated with the decreased reporting of COVID-19 symptoms [ 29 ]. Taken together, and consistent with previous research, these factors point to the complex relationship between demographic and socioeconomic circumstances and long COVID and suggest the presence of psychological and psychosocial vulnerabilities affecting recovery [ 8 , 30 ].…”

“…Taken together, and consistent with previous research, these factors point to the complex relationship between demographic and socioeconomic circumstances and long COVID and suggest the presence of psychological and psychosocial vulnerabilities affecting recovery [ 8 , 30 ]. Given the increasing evidence from international research demonstrating inequalities in the social and economic burdens caused by COVID-19 [ 9 , 29 , 31 , 32 ], comprehensive analyses of the effects of long COVID on ethnic and other minority groups worldwide are necessary to ensure that these groups receive accessible and appropriate access to care.…”