Innate stimuli, such as TLR ligands, are known to greatly facilitate cross-priming. Currently it is unclear whether innate stimuli enhance cross-priming at the level of crosspresentation or at the level of T-cell priming. In this study, we addressed this question by measuring cross-presentation as well as cross-priming by virus-like particles (VLP) displaying peptide p33 derived of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Innate stimuli were varied by either packaging different TLR ligands into virus-like particles or using mice deficient in two key molecules of TLR-signaling, namely the adaptor molecule MyD88 as well as IFN-a/b receptor. While efficient cross-presentation occurred despite strongly reduced activation of DC in the absence of TLR ligand-mediated signals, T-cell priming was abolished. Thus, innate stimuli regulate cross-priming at the level of DC licensing for T-cell activation and not antigen presentation.Key words: Antigen presentation/processing . Cross-presentation/priming . DC Introduction CD8 1 T cells play an important role in defense against infectious agents. Activated CD8 1 T cells differentiate into CTL that kill infected cells. CTL recognize endogenously synthesized antigenic peptides complexed with MHC class I molecules on the surface of APC. Since not all pathogens directly infect APC, it is necessary that APC are able to internalize exogenous antigens and present them on MHC class I molecules for CD8 1 T-cell recognition, a process known as cross-presentation [1][2][3]. Such cross-presented antigens may make an important contribution to the induction of CTL responses, in particular for non-replicating antigens, such as virus-like particles (VLP) [4]. The main cell types involved in cross-presentation are professional APC, such as DC [5,6] as well as macrophages [7,8] but not B cells [9].The primary function of immature DC is to sample foreign antigens for T-cell and perhaps B-cell priming. To this end, DC either sit at strategic positions within lymphoid organs or act as sentinels in peripheral tissues. In any event, for optimal T-cell priming, DC need pathogen-derived signals in order to mature [10]. In a first step, DC are activated by various pathogen-derived molecules (known as PAMP), including ligands for TLR, lectins, intracellular nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain receptors or retinoic acid induced gene [11][12][13][14]. So far 11 TLR have been identified in mice [15]. TLR recognize invariant viral or bacterial structures. A number of receptors are specialized in recognizing nucleic acids, such as dsRNA (TLR3), ssRNA (TLR7 and TLR8), and DNA rich in non-methlylated CG motifs (CpG, TLR9). The interaction of microbial ligands with innate immune system receptors initiates the maturation of DC. Stimulation of DC with such innate stimuli results in licensed DC. Such DC express intermediate levels of cell surface costimulatory molecules. Endogenous mediators, such as TNF family members, chemokines, or other cytokines facilitate the full differentiation of DC, expressing high leve...