Illicit drugs in Canadian municipal wastewater and estimates of community drug use

Zheng

et al. 2016

Environ Sci Pollut Res

Illicit drugs and their metabolites have recently been recognized as an emerging group of contaminants due to their potential ecotoxicological impact in aquatic ecosystems. To date, information on the occurrence of these compounds in the aquatic environment of China remains limited. In this study, we collected surface water samples from 36 rivers in north China that discharge into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea and measured the concentrations of amphetamine-like compounds, ketamines, cocainics, and opioids. The occurrence and spatial patterns of these substances show significant differences between the rivers and regions. Two designer drugs, methamphetamine (METH) and ketamine (KET), were the most abundant compounds detected in the entire set of samples (detection frequency of 92 and 69 %). The concentrations of METH and KET ranged from <0.1 to 42.0 ng L −1 (mean = 4.53 ng L −1 ) and <0.05 to 4.50 ng L −1 (mean = 0.49 ng L −1 ), respectively. The high detection frequencies of METH and KET are consistent with the fact that they are the main illicit drugs consumed in China. The high concentrations of these illicit drugs and their metabolites were found in areas that have a high population density. The riverine input of total illicit drugs into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea was estimated to be in the range of 684 to 1160 kg per year.

Section: Drug Loads In Rivers and The Uncertainty Analysismentioning

confidence: 99%

Illicit drugs and their metabolites in 36 rivers that drain into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea, north China

Zheng

et al. 2016

Environ Sci Pollut Res

Science of The Total Environment

“…Procedural blanks in each matrix were also pre-concentrated to measure SPE recovery of both the DOAs and their surrogates. Automated SPE was carried out using a Gilson GX-271 ASPEC™ instrument using the method described in Metcalfe et al (2010). The eluent was then evaporated to almost dryness using a Savant SPD 131DDA Speed Vac Concentrator connected to a RVT4104 refrigerated vapor trap (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA).…”

Section: Sample Pre-concentrationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…It is well known however, that the use of psychoactive substances is essentially universal and that they are one of the most recent additions to the list of contaminants of emerging concern in the environment (Boleda et al, 2009;Kasprzyk-Hordern et al, 2010). It is clear from the studies that have identified these compounds in wastewater effluents and surface waters at the nanogram and in some cases, microgram per liter level, that they and many of their main human metabolites, are ubiquitous in the environment (Baker and Kasprzyk-Hordern, 2011;Bartelt-Hunt et al, 2009;Bijlsma et al, 2012Bijlsma et al, , 2013Castiglioni et al, 2006a;Gheorghe et al, 2008;González-Mariño et al, 2011;Hummel et al, 2006;Jones-Lepp et al, 2004;Kasprzyk-Hordern et al, 2009;Metcalfe et al, 2010;Pedrouzo et al, 2011a;Postigo et al, 2011;Zuccato et al, 2005). In fact, these compounds, like many other contaminants of emerging concern have been shown to be resistant to physicochemical and biological treatment at WWTPs and are therefore continuously introduced into the aquatic environment (Boleda et al, 2009;Bolong et al, 2009;Chiaia et al, 2008;Huerta-Fontela et al, 2008;Pal et al, 2013;Postigo et al, 2010;Valcárcel et al, 2012;Yargeau et al, 2013;Zuccato et al, 2008).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…1 along with some physicochemical properties of the selected compounds. These DOAs were selected based on their worldwide consumption (UNODC, 2008) and detection in wastewater effluents in a previous Canadian study as well as in studies conducted in other countries (Boleda et al, 2007;Bones et al, 2007;Castiglioni et al, 2006b;Gheorghe et al, 2008;HuertaFontela et al, 2007;Hummel et al, 2006;Irvine et al, 2011;KasprzykHordern et al, 2009;Metcalfe et al, 2010;Pedrouzo et al, 2011a;Postigo et al, 2011;Zuccato and Castiglioni, 2009). In addition, it has been shown that COC has cyto-genotoxic effects on Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) at environmentally relevant concentrations.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Ozonation of wastewater: Removal and transformation products of drugs of abuse

Rodayan

Segura

Yargeau

2014

Self Cite

• The ozonation of six drugs of abuse and one human drug metabolite was carried out.• Drug removals vary between 3 and 50% for the ozone doses tested.• The main transformation products of the drugs of abuse were identified.• The most plausible structure of a transformation product of MDMA was elucidated. a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o In this study amphetamine, methamphetamine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine (COC), benzoylecgonine (BE), ketamine (KET) and oxycodone (OXY) in wastewater at concentrations of 100 μgL −1 were subjected to ozone to determine their removals as a function of ozone dose and to identify significant oxidation transformation products (OTPs) produced as a result of ozonation. A method based on high resolution mass spectrometry and differential analysis was used to facilitate and accelerate the identification and structural elucidation of the transformation products. The drug removal ranged from 3 to 50% depending on the complexity of the matrix and whether a mixture or individual drugs were ozonated. Both transient and persistent oxidation transformation products were identified for MDMA, COC and OXY and their chemical formulae were determined. Three possible structures of the persistent transformation product of MDMA (OTP-213) with chemical formula C 10 H 16 O 4 N, were determined based on MS n mass spectra and the most plausible structure (OTP-213a) was determined based on the chemistry of ozone. These results indicate that ozone is capable of removing drugs of abuse from wastewater to varying extents and that persistent transformation products are produced as a result of treatment.

Science of The Total Environment

“…Results are often reported not just in terms of the level of compounds detected, but used as an epidemiological measure of drug use including comparisons of drug trends over time and between locations with implications for international drug policy (Metcalfe et al, 2010;van Nuijs et al, 2009). However, without proper data analysis and reporting of analytical results below LOD and LOQ, as well as estimating confidence bounds that incorporate all sources of uncertainty, we believe reporting such comparisons of drug use are premature.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Using wastewater-based epidemiology to estimate drug consumption—Statistical analyses and data presentation

Banta‐Green

Brewer

Ort

et al. 2016

AimAnalysis of wastewater samples can be used to assess population drug use, but reporting and statistical issues have limited the utility of the approach for epidemiology due to analytical results that are below the limit of quantification or detection. Unobserved or non-quantifiable-censored-data are common and likely to persist as the methodology is applied to more municipalities and a broader array of substances. We demonstrate the use of censored data techniques and account for measurement errors to explore distributions and annual estimates of the daily mean level of drugs excreted per capita. MeasurementsDaily 24-hour composite wastewater samples for 56 days in 2009 were obtained using a random sample stratified by day of week and season for 19 municipalities in the Northwest region of the U.S. MethodsMethamphetamine, benzoylecgonine (cocaine metabolite), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), methadone, oxycodone and hydrocodone were identified and quantified in wastewater samples. Four statistical approaches (reporting censoring, maximum likelihood estimation, Kaplan-Meier estimates, or complete data calculations) were used to estimate an annual average, including confidence bounds where appropriate, dependent upon the amount of censoring in the data. FindingsThe proportion of days within a year with censored data varied greatly by drug across the 19 municipalities, with MDMA varying the most (4% to 94% of observations censored). The different statistical approaches each needed to be used given the levels of censoring of measured drug concentrations. Figures incorporating confidence bounds allow visualization of the data that facilitates appropriate comparisons across municipalities. ConclusionsResults from wastewater sampling that are below detection or quantification limits contain important information and can be incorporated to create a more complete and valid estimate of drug excretion.