Impact of outdoor winter sports on the abundance of a key indicator species of alpine ecosystems

Abstract

Summary 1.Tourism and leisure activities have increased continuously all over the world during the past decades, exerting a growing pressure upon naturally fragile ecosystems, such as mountainous habitats. Recent studies have established that disturbance by outdoor winter sports (e.g. skiing, snowboarding and snowshoeing) is a source of stress for wildlife. This may in turn affect its abundance, but we still lack quantitative evidence. 2. We tested the effect of outdoor winter sports (ski lifts and related recreational activities) on the abundance of the alpine black grouse Tetrao tetrix , a vulnerable indicator species of the timberline ecosystem, the favoured habitat for outdoor winter sports in the European Alps. 3. Generalized linear models and a model selection approach were used to rank environmental factors influencing black grouse abundance and to make predictions about population status in the theoretical absence of ski resorts. We modelled the number of displaying cocks along census transects in spring, as a function of habitat characteristics (vegetation structure and typology), ski lift density and hunting pressure at 15 natural sites (none or a very low level of anthropogenic disturbance) and 15 ski resorts in the south-western Swiss Alps. 4. Ski lift density and habitat typology were the principal determinants of black grouse abundance, whereas hunting pressure had no discernable effect. Ski lifts and related winter sport activities had a strong negative effect on the number of displaying cocks, which may have led to a mean 36% reduction of local abundance in ski lift areas, as determined after controlling for the confounding effect of habitat type. 5. Synthesis and applications . Conservation action plans for black grouse should aim at reducing the multiple negative effects generated by outdoor winter sports (ski facilities and related winter sport activities). First, vegetation patchiness (i.e. a mosaic of grassy shrubland with scattered trees) should be maintained along ski runs. Secondly, wintering preserves where human access is banned or strictly limited should be promoted within ski resorts. Spatially explicit human-wildlife conflict maps can be constructed from the present model to allow delineation of those areas likely to become effective protection areas.

Disturbance of wildlife by outdoor winter recreation: allostatic stress response and altered activity–energy budgets

“…By simultaneously measuring glucocorticoid excretion, activity, and energy budgets, the present experiments contribute to bridging this gap. This study confirms that outdoor winter recreation (by back-country skiers, snowboarders, and snowshoers) has an impact on wildlife (for Black Grouse, see Arlettaz et al 2007, Patthey et al 2008, Braunisch et al 2011, provoking subtle allostatic, physiological adjustments and behavioral responses. To our knowledge, and for the first time, it demonstrates the existence of a funneling effect, as predicted by the allostatic theory of stress, with a non-unidirectional individual stress response to disturbance.…”

“…Nature recreation, however, has recently been recognized as a new, serious threat to ecosystems (Taylor and Knight 2003, Munns 2006, Sutherland 2007. Already faced with habitat degradation, endangered species of wildlife must contend with additional problems likely to impact physiology and population dynamics, including stress (Arlettaz et al 2007, Rehnus et al 2014 (Williams et al 2006)], behavior (Baines andRichardson 2007, Thiel et al 2008), reproductive performance (Watson andMoss 2004, Langston et al 2007), survival (Mu¨llner et al 2004), and abundance (Hofer and East 1998, Watson and Moss 2004, Patthey et al 2008). Yet there are few studies that have simultaneously investigated the repercussions generated by recreational disturbance, from mounting a stress response, to reallocating time and energy, to changes in physiological condition, immunological competence, reproductive ability, and survival (Carey 2005, Stevenson 2006).…”

“…Black Grouse is a declining key indicator species of boreo-alpine ecosystems in Eurasia (Storch 2007). In the European Alps, its semi-open habitat lies within the subalpine timberline belt, mainly between 1700 and 2300 m altitude, where most skiing infrastructure and outdoor recreation is concentrated (Patthey et al 2008, Braunisch et al 2011, thereby exposing them to anthropogenic disturbance (Arlettaz et al 2007). In winter, alpine Black Grouse show a bimodal daily activity rhythm, with periods of foraging in early morning and late afternoon (hereafter evening) (Marjakangas 1986).…”

Exploring factors in influencing the attitude of on-site ski mountaineers towards the ski touring management measures of the Gesäuse National Park

“…Disturbance effects from recreational winter activities, combined with difficult conditions in winter, predators, habitat deterioration and hunting can have severe consequences for wildlife. (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2009; Patthey et al 2008;Thiel et al 2008;Arlettaz et al 2007;Storch 2007;Ingold 2005;Menoni & Magnani 1998;Zeitler & Glanzer 1998;Spidso et al 1997). …”

Differential responses of ground dwelling arthropods to ski-piste restoration by hydroseeding

“…Wilson et al 2005;Pauli et al 2007), as well as increasing human disturbance (Arlettaz et al 2007;Thiel et al 2007;Patthey et al 2008). Skiing, in particular, represents a significant threat to local biodiversity because it leads to changes in land use that can significantly modify the characteristics of a habitat.…”