Impact of the ENSO phenomenon on wave variability in the Pacific Ocean for wind sea and swell waves

A Systematic Review of Oceanic-Atmospheric Variations and Coastal Erosion in Continental Latin America: Historical Trends, Future Projections, and Management Challenges

“…During the El Niño phenomenon, warm temperatures near the coasts of Peru induce changes in the climate of the eastern equatorial Pacific, triggering more frequent and intense storms along with stronger winds that influence wave systems. However, it has been identified that along the Colombian Pacific coast during La Niña, both wind speeds and conditions associated with significant wave heights from wind-driven waves, swell, and combined significant wave heights are greater for most of the time compared to El Niño [33][34][35]. ENSO phases influence wave systems along the Eastern Pacific coasts, with wave power increasing during El Niño in some areas and decreasing in others [24,36].…”

“…ENSO phases influence wave systems along the Eastern Pacific coasts, with wave power increasing during El Niño in some areas and decreasing in others [24,36]. In winter, El Niño impacts the tropical northeast, reducing trade winds and intensifying wave activity, while in summer it affects the tropical northwest, increasing tropical cyclone activity and extreme waves [35,37]. Tropical Atlantic temperature, linked to ENSO, affects La Niña conditions in the North Tropical Atlantic, altering trade winds and storm intensity [10,34,38,39].…”

“…In recent years, the spectral approach has gained attention in wave climate studies, providing a more detailed insight into how waves can affect specific regions, particularly in complex wave systems, such as tropical [35,77]. This type of analysis allows for the separate assessment of changes in variables like wave period and direction, contrasting with integrated approaches that may mask variations in individual wave systems.…”

Relationship between Large-Scale Variability of North Pacific Waves and El Niño-Southern Oscillation

“…Kelvin waves in the far-western Pacific serve as an initiation mechanism of ENSO, and also cause the termination of existing ENSO conditions in the central and eastern Pacific [24,25]. Several studies have explored variations in ENSO and its warm and cold phase changes, with particular emphasis on the analysis of climatic variables such as wind speed, temperature, pressure, and others [26,27]. However, small-scale waves have received limited attention on large-scale ocean climate [28].…”