Implications of the Online Teaching Model Derived from the COVID-19 Lockdown Situation for Anxiety and Executive Functioning in Spanish Children and Adolescents

Abstract

Given the seriousness of the existing situation regarding the mental health of children and adolescents relating to the confinement period imposed due to COVID-19, we conducted this study to describe the effects of the confinement on state anxiety and executive functioning dimensions in a period of online educational modality. A sample of 953 children and adolescents was assessed. A sociodemographic questionnaire, the State Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC), and the Behavioral Evaluation of Executive Function (BRIEF-2) scale were applied. The analysis of the results indicates that 68.8% of children and adolescents presented medium–high levels of anxiety. Regarding sex, females showed higher levels of anxiety and worse levels of executive functioning. Although the group aged 11 to 18 years showed methodologically higher state anxiety (p = 0.041) than the group aged 6 to 10 years, the difference was not clinically relevant (δ = −0.113). The state anxiety variable was also correlated positively and significantly to the three executive functioning dimensions explored. In conclusion, it seems evident that COVID-19 lockdowns could have psychological and emotional effects on children and adolescents.

Anxiety, sleep habits and executive function during the COVID-19 pandemic through parents’ perception: a longitudinal study

“…Results seem to show a deterioration in the general index of executive functioning as well as in the scales of emotional regulation, cognitive rigidity/flexibility and planning/organisation. In agreement with these results, other authors highlight that parents perceive a worsening in executive and academic functioning during the COVID-19 (T1) confinement period (Andrés et al, 2022 ; Hanno et al, 2022 ; Lavigne-Cervan et al, 2021b , Polizzi et al, 2021 ). However, when comparing T2 and T3, no significant differences have been found, but some improvement has been observed in the latter period (T3) in relation to the second one (T2).…”

“…Similarly, a slight amount of studies have observed that some cognitive parameters such as executive functioning have also been impaired (Hanno et al, 2022 ). Lavigne-Cervan et al ( 2021b ) evidenced more prevalence of anxiety and poor executive functioning in children and adolescents during the online learning situation resulting from the pandemic. Individuals suffering from high levels of anxiety tended to present poorer emotional management, cognitive rigidity and disorganisation.…”

Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Development of Childrens Executive Functions Implications for School-Based Interventions

“…In terms of EFs, results revealed a decline in global executive functioning as well as deteroration in emotional regulation, cognitive fl exibility, and planning and organizational skills [27]. Other authors have reported a worsening in executive and academic functioning during the COVID-19 confi nement period, which is consistent with these fi ndings [20,[52][53][54]. A longitudinal study discovered that the COVID-19 has a direct eff ect on children's executive performance.…”

“…On the other hand, school closures and distant education have resulted in academic delay and school dropout [9,16,17]. Similarly, prolonged confi nement has limited children's peer relationships and participation in group activities, which may have an impact on children's socio-emotional, cognitive, and linguistic development trajectories [6,[18][19][20].…”

“…Therefore, chronic stress and trait anxiety may impair executive functions performance and slow their developmental trajectory. Recent studies have found positive and moderate associations between anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance, and executive dysfunctions in children during pandemic [20,27].…”