“…Although their use is hardly new in finance, with one of the earliest studies employing neural networks to capture the rate of bank failures in the early 1990s (Tam & Kiang, 1992), in the last 5 years, the use of deep learning and related methods have become more popular and mainstream—with their applications ranging from assessing time series predictability of returns (Leippold et al, 2022) to reviewing market efficiency (Brogaard & Zareei, 2022; Dong et al, 2022) to capturing stock market sentiments based on photographs (Obaid & Pukthuanthong, 2022) and choice of words in investor conference calls (Garcia et al, 2023). In terms of their applications to modeling volatility smile and surface, some of the more relevant papers include Zeng and Klabjan (2019), Cao et al (2020), and Liu et al (2021). The study of Medvedev and Wang (2022), however, comes closest to ours in terms of the use of different implementations in a trading setting.…”