“…In urban environments, GNSS signals can be obstructed by tall buildings, affected by multipath interference, or even subjected to deliberate jamming, all of which can significantly impact navigation accuracy. To improve accuracy, AVs often employ a combination of sensors [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ].…”