“…TTA has been widely demonstrated to enhance model accuracy and robustness ( Krizhevsky, Sutskever & Hinton, 2012 ; Matsunaga et al, 2017b ; Cohen, Rosenfeld & Kolter, 2019b ), address distribution shift issues ( Zhang, Levine & Finn, 2022 ), and defend against adversarial attacks ( Prakash et al, 2018 ; Gao et al, 2020 ). Researchers have proposed various TTA methods in different domains, including image segmentation ( Moshkov et al, 2020 ), text grammar correction ( Yang et al, 2022 ), text classification ( Lu et al, 2022 ), audio-text retrieval ( Kim et al, 2022 ), theoretical research ( Kimura, 2021 ; Kim, Kim & Kim, 2020 ), and uncertainty estimation ( Conde et al, 2023 ; Conde & Premebida, 2022 ).…”