Improving Swimming Pool Warning Signs

Abstract

The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission sponsored us to perform a human factors evaluation of existing swimming pool warning signs. Our study covered warnings which convey the messages “NO DIVING” and “WATCH CHILDREN”. These warnings are particularly intended to reduce the incidence of diving accidents involving teenage boys and drowning accidents involving children under five; population groups that are over-represented in accident statistics. Our evaluation of twenty-two existing signs uncovered deviations from warning sign design principles and identified opportunities to improve each of the signs. Following the evaluation, we developed improved signs and tested them using teenage boys and mothers of young children as subjects. We then made final recommendations to the CPSC for improved signs.

Warning Research: An Integrative Perspective

“…Pictorials used to graphically Adams & Montague (1994); represent or draw attention to a Kalsher et al (1994); warning Kalsher et al (1996); Laughery & Young (1991b); Lerner & Collins (1983); Loring & Wiklund (1988); Young et al (1995) Text style Text body attributes Braun, Silver, & Stock (1992); ; Silver et al (1994) Type Style Attributes such as bold, Braun & Silver (1995b); italicized, outlined, uppercase Braun et al (1992); Silver & and lowercase, and font style ; Silver et al (1994); Smither & Braun (1994); Vanderplas & Vanderplas (1980); Zuccollo & Liddell (1985) Hakiel (1981); Magurno, Wogalter, Kohake, & Wolff (1994); Mayer & Laux (1989); Ringseis & Caird (1995); Wogalter, Sojourner, & Brelsford (1997); Wolff & Wogalter (1993 Warning variables…”

“…Pictorials might be especially important for communicating warning information to individuals who cannot read the language or who are illiterate. At least two characteristics of symbols will determine whether they are encoded (Loring & Wiklund, 1988). First, a pictorial must be large enough to communicate its message at the intended viewing distance.…”

Designing warnings to compensate for age-related changes in perceptual and cognitive abilities

“…In addition, Zuccollo and Liddell (1985) suggested that printing medication labels in a script style typeface should be avoided for older adults. Morrell and Echt also recommended that the use of all capital letters in the text body should be avoided, yet Loring and Wiklund (1988) reported that capitalizing important components of a warning can help to emphasize the information. In general, findings from the cognitive aging literature indicate that caution be taken to avoid excessive use of all capital letters.…”

Reconsidering the Role of Design Standards in Developing Effective Safety Labeling: Monolithic Recipes or Collections of Separable Features?

“…Some research in this area has focused on evaluating isolated warning components (e.g., the use of color, font size, choice of signal word, pictorials, placement), or on combinations of warning components, specified in the standard. Most of these studies have relied on perceptual measures to gauge effectiveness, including noticing, reading, memory, perceived hazardousness, preference, and behavioral intentions (e.g., Kalsher, Wogalter, Brewster, & Spunar, 1995; Loring & Wiklund, 1988; Matthews, Andronaco, & Adams, 2014). Only a relatively few studies have assessed actual compliance behavior (e.g.…”