In Situ Calibration of a Passive Sampling Device for Selected Illicit Drugs and Their Metabolites in Wastewater, And Subsequent Year-Long Assessment of Community Drug Usage

Abstract

Polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) were calibrated in situ for selected illicit drugs and their metabolites at a sewage treatment works. Eleven out of 13 target compounds were detected and eight of those exhibited linear uptake kinetics with sampling rates between 0.035 and 0.150 L d(-1). Subsequently POCIS were deployed for 2 week periods over the course of a whole year, in order to examine trends in drug usage. Amphetamine and methamphetamine showed several similar peaks in concentration during the course of the year as did cocaine and two of its metabolites. Low levels of ecstasy were observed, with a prominent peak in May and a steady increase toward the end of the year. The antihistamine Cetirizine showed a clear increase in use during the summer months as expected and back calculation of the yearly dosage from POCIS accumulations yielded very similar results to that registered in the Norwegian prescription database. Estimations of cocaine usage using the parent compound averaged between 0.31 and 2.8 g d(-1) per 1000 inhabitants. POCIS is a cost-effective technique for the long-term monitoring of drug usage of a defined population and may overcome the difficulties of representative sampling associated with autosampling equipment.

Occurrence and behavior of illicit drugs and metabolites in sewage water from the Spanish Mediterranean coast (Valencia region)

“…These findings are in agreement with the works from Harman et al (2011) and Lai et al (2013a), who also reported increased use of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine 10/26 and MDMA in the holiday period in Oslo region (Norway), and a vacation area in Queensland (Australia), respectively.…”

“…Several factors may explain the non-detection of this compound in most influent samples. Obviously, the analytical limitations, mainly the poor sensitivity, play a key role which makes the quantification of THC-COOH troublesome, and also sorption to solids may be greater (Harman et al, 2011), due to its different physico-chemical properties (lower polarity) compared with other illicit drugs.…”

“…The possibility of performing daily sample analysis makes it feasible to have real-time and objective information on drug use of a community. Some recent studies report spatial and temporal variations in the occurrence of illicit drugs in wastewater, including holidays and "control" periods (Lai et al 2013a), or performing analysis along one year (Harman et al 2011;van Nuijs et al 2011a). Standard sampling devices are normally used to obtain 24-h composite samples, but polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) have also been used (Harman et al 2011).…”

“…Despite the limitations and uncertainties associated with sewage water analysis, interesting trends in drug use have been observed, with prominent increase related to particular celebrations (Harman et al 2011;Lai et al 2013aLai et al , 2013bvan Nuijs et al 2011a). However, the removal of these compounds by STPs during these high peaks of drug usage was not evaluated.…”

Passive sampling of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in aquatic environments

“…-In situ calibration -measurement of sampling rate at the exact location where the sampling experiments are to be conducted. Deployed samplers are calibrated by comparing analyte accumulation with TWA concentration in water obtained from gram sampling (Harman et al 2011). -PRC based system -PRC are organic compounds that are introduced into the receiving phase of the sampler before it is exposed.…”