In vivo applications of X-ray fluorescence in human subjects

Abstract

X-ray fluorescence has been used to measure several elements noninvasively within living human subjects. Some description is given of the constraints imposed by this rather unusual form of analysis together with a brief listing indicating the range of elements for which such analyses have been developed. Measurements of two elements are then presented in more detail. Lead is measured in bone and has become a well-established tool in continuing research into the long term effects of lead. Strontium is also measured in bone and, although presently not in widespread use, offers the potential for essential information in the study of the reported benefits of strontium supplementation.

XRF analysis of strontium: Exploring cellulose as a soft tissue equivalent

“…These complications can be sorted into at least three main points. The first is tissue inhomogeneity . Many elements comprise soft tissue, mainly carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.…”

“…The first is tissue inhomogeneity. [3] Many elements comprise soft tissue, mainly carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Inhomogeneity segues into the second complication of thickness contributing to scatter.…”

“…X‐rays are attenuated by the soft tissue as they travel through to the bone. Soft tissue also contributes to the amount of scatter the X‐rays will experience . Human skin is heterogeneous, composed mostly of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen with smaller amounts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and so forth .…”

“…Soft tissue also contributes to the amount of scatter the X-rays will experience. [3] Human skin is heterogeneous, composed mostly of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen with smaller amounts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and so forth. [4] To compensate for skin composition and thickness, a correction must therefore be applied to XRF quantification measurements.…”

Reliability of a decision‐tree model in predicting occupational lead poisoning in a group of highly exposed workers

“…CBLI (μg.years/dl) was approximated by the product of the BLL and exposure duration (in years). It has been shown that 5–10% of the CBLI finds its way into the tibia [Hu et al, ; Chettle, ].…”