“…This difference in optimal mating rate affects the level of sexual conflict (Arnqvist and Rowe, 2005). Generally, male mating strategies impose non-trivial reproductive costs on females in terms of offspring production (Rossi, Nonacs, and Pitts-Singer, 2010; Takeshita, Lombardo, Wada, and Henmi, 2011), male harassment (Helinski and Harrington, 2012), insemination (Arnqvist and Nilsson, 2000), maternal care (Boncoraglio and Kilner, 2012), physical injury (Crudgington and Siva-Jothy, 2000) and/or death (Leboeuf and Mesnick, 1991; Réale, Boussès, and Chapuis, 1996). Sexual selection is expected to favor counter-adaptations to these costs in females that will maximize their individual fitness (Arnqvist and Rowe, 2005).…”