Increased use of sanitizers and disinfectants during the COVID-19 pandemic: identification of antimicrobial chemicals and considerations for aquatic environmental contamination

Abstract

In response to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic there has been an increased need for personal and environmental decontamination to aid in curbing transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Products used for this purpose include sanitizers for hands and disinfectants for surfaces. The active chemical ingredients used in these products, termed antimicrobials, can enter waste streams after application and may be emerging as more prominent environmental contaminants. Even prior to COVID-19, there was recognized need to examine their implications for aquatic biota, which is now made more pressing due to their exaggerated use in response to the pandemic. Our objectives were to identify current antimicrobial active ingredients, quantify their increased use, and determine which may be candidates for further consideration as possible aquatic contaminants. By consulting multiple sources of publicly available information in Canada, we identified current-use antimicrobials from the lists of sanitizers and surface disinfectants approved for use against SARS-CoV-2 by Health Canada and the drug registration database. To estimate the use of sanitizers and disinfectants, we evaluated import quantities and grocery store retail sales of related compounds and products (Statistics Canada) and both lines of evidence supported increased use trends. The list of identified antimicrobials was refined to include only candidates with potential to reach aquatic ecosystems, and information on their environmental concentrations and toxicity to aquatic biota were reviewed. Candidate antimicrobials (n=32) fell into four main categories: quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), phenols, acids and salts. Benzalkonium chloride, a QAC, was the most prominent active ingredient used in both non-alcohol-based hand sanitizers and surface disinfectants. Four QACs followed in prevalence and the next most used antimicrobial was triclosan (hand sanitizers only), an established and regulated environmental contaminant. Little information was found on environmental concentrations of other candidates, suggesting that the majority would fall into the category of emerging contaminants if they enter aquatic systems. Several were classified as acutely or chronically toxic to aquatic biota (Globally Harmonised System) and thus we recommend empirical research begin focusing on environmental monitoring of all candidate antimicrobials as a critical next step, with detection method development first where needed.

Synergistic antibacterial effect of disinfectants and microbubble water to Salmonella Typhimurium

“…verse impacts on aquatic ecosystems, accumulation on vegetables, and contamination of the food chain via wastewater irrigation and sludge application (Dewey et al, 2021;Subpiramaniyam 2021;Marteinson et al, 2022).…”

Knowledge, attitudes and practice regarding environmental friendly disinfectants for household use among residents of China in the post-pandemic period

“…During the COVID-19 pandemic, the excessive use of disinfectants in different settings including healthcare, household and public places as well as the intensified disinfection of wastewater result in the increasing environmental loads of disinfectants as emerging contaminants (1)(2)(3)(4)(5). Wastewater surveillance testing had shown a strong positive association between the total concentrations of disinfectants and the SARS-CoV-2 viral load in wastewater (4).…”

“…Wastewater surveillance testing had shown a strong positive association between the total concentrations of disinfectants and the SARS-CoV-2 viral load in wastewater ( 4 ). After being consumed and used for disinfection, disinfectants would be washed down the drain at household and hospital levels, be released during product manufacturing, or run off into stormwater systems after outdoor application ( 5 ). Especially within the home-based setting, disinfectants such as benzalkonium chlorides and sodium hypochlorite are widely consumed by the residents as active ingredients in personal care and daily chemical products including hand sanitizers, cleaning agents, disinfection sprays, band-aids, sanitary wipes and wood preservatives, etc., ( 2 ).…”

“…Despite the fact that there is still no exact definition of the term “environmental friendly disinfectants”, it has been generally accepted that disinfectants being relatively safe to the environment are mainly characterized by the following two aspects. On the one hand, an environmental friendly disinfectant can be fast degraded in the environment and its degraded residuals are non-toxic to organisms ( 5 , 12 ). Among the common chemical disinfectants, the hydrogen peroxide would readily break down into oxygen and hydrogen within a short period under natural conditions, thus highly unstable in environment ( 3 , 5 ).…”

“…On the one hand, an environmental friendly disinfectant can be fast degraded in the environment and its degraded residuals are non-toxic to organisms ( 5 , 12 ). Among the common chemical disinfectants, the hydrogen peroxide would readily break down into oxygen and hydrogen within a short period under natural conditions, thus highly unstable in environment ( 3 , 5 ). Based on their high likelihood of quickly evaporating following application, the volatile disinfectants such as alcohols, bromochloromethane, bromoethane, and chlorine dioxide are unlikely to reach the environmental matrices ( 3 ).…”